%ISOlat1; %ISOtech; %ISOnum; %ISOdia; %ISOgrk1; %ISOpub; %ISOlat2; ]> Foreword See notes on the electronic edition The old saw that you can't judge a book by its cover is not precisely true. Actually, it cannot be applied to the earliest known form of the book, the Codex. Many surviving Codices possess bindings which are almost an integral part of the text. Their fundamental designs and the frequent sumptuous embellishment of the covers with gold and silver mounts encrusted with jewels or semiprecious gems or enamels offer compelling insight into the contents of the books they protect. These magnificent survivors of many centuries of use and adoration are among the great bibliophilic treasures of those fortunate libraries and museums who possess them. It is a matter of great regret that in many instances the bindings have been stripped, stolen, or otherwise removed from the texts they encased, for such bindings frequently offer valid evidence of their places of execution. What would we not give to know what kind of binding originally was placed on the noble Book of Kells, since it might well have provided the missing clues to the earliest history and provenance of this great manuscript of the Gospels. In many instances certain book covers artistically admired for their craftsmanship in the use of ivory, silver, and, at a later date, leather remain as single objects, and we can only speculate about the texts they encased. We owe a great debt to the Egyptian Christians, the Copts, who most probably were the first to use leather as covers for their scriptural texts. Once introduced it became the most common material used for bookbinding throughout Europe; it was not supplanted essentially until the nineteenth century when cloth bindings became common. Velvet had, of course, been used much earlier for embroidered bindings. Early on binding developed as a craft, and it became a highly skilled craft, one which has endured to this day. Over the years as books proliferated the need for bookbinding increased; the invention of printing provided a new impetus to the craft and probably revolutionized it. The earliest printed books were issued by their printers in unbound sheets; those who purchased them arranged to have them bound according to their individual requirements. That is one of the reasons why the study and investigation of fifteenth‐century bindings can reveal such interesting details about the early history of these original covers. We know, for example, that a number of copies of Johann Gutenberg's famous Bible of 1455 were bound not at Mainz, where this Bible was printed, but at Erfurt; and we also know that one of the binders in that community was named Johannes Fogel, since one of the blind stamps used to embellish the leather stretched over the original wooden boards contained his own name. Other bindings of a slightly later period carry on their leather covers a stamp which is a recognizable portrait of an early printer, Johann de Westphalia; another group reveals the arms of the city of Cologne, providing valid evidence of the place of binding. Indeed, the study of the basic designs of early bindings and the blind stamps used to decorate them has become the object of intensive bibliographic research. The late Ernst Kyriss devoted many years of productive scholarship to documenting the sources of innumerable early German bindings carrying blind stamps. For the early years of the sixteenth century, Konrad Haebler performed a similar service by categorizing and classifying the numerous rolls used on German bindings of that period. The bindings of other countries have also received careful attention, but much more work remains to be done. It is not surprising to find early German books in contemporary Italian bindings, and early Italian printed books in German or French bindings, indicating that the book trade was quite mobile. Stylistically, it is often possible to identify early and also later bindings by their country and even their city of origin. It is also true that rich and affluent bibliophiles such as Matthias Corvinus (King of Hungary), the King of Naples, and later Jean Grolier of Lyons and Paris, one of the greatest of all bibliophiles, took great pains to have their libraries appropriately and sumptuously bound. Books from these and other great collections are easily recognized and highly prized by their present‐day owners. England and, especially, France have produced countless royal bindings of extraordinary interest and variety. The art of fine bookbinding is well represented in France, where it continues to flourish. One must not lose sight of the lacquered bindings from Islam (a separate chapter in themselves), the embroidered covers executed by English needleworkers in the seventeenth century, or the beautiful silk bindings found on Chinese and Japanese books of all periods. There is infinite variety to be found in the study of this historic craft. There is also much to be said about early binding in this country and much more to be written. Although in its earliest period it was frankly derivative and with certain exceptions can hardly be regarded as distinguished, there were attempts at refinement. There has been a tremendous interest in the history of bookbinding in this country in recent years, stimulated in part by the late Dorothy Miner's monumental exhibition of bindings, principally from American collections, which was handsomely mounted at the Baltimore Museum of Art in 1957. Over seven hundred exceptional bindings, covering more than fourteen centuries, were on display. It was a delight for all those who shared in it or saw it, and its impact is still being felt today. Another stimulant to this heightening of interest is the emphasis that has been placed recently on the preservation and restoration of all aspects of the book, including papyrus, vellum, and paper. Modern scientific approaches have introduced a new vocabulary, much of which is not readily comprehended by those whose interests are most intimately concerned with the books of all ages. The purpose of a foreword is to inform the reader, if he cares to peruse it, about the contents of the text it introduces. The text of the present book is not a history of bookbinding—although there is a great deal of history about the craft contained herein, and it also discusses the materials used, the notable binders whose names illuminate it, and other useful information. It is rather an up‐to‐date dictionary. The succinct definitions and explanations, as well as the biographical vignettes, contained in this dictionary will be a boon to those who seek this kind of information. Those concerned, whether they are practicing binders, technicians, rare book librarians, collectors, or simply laymen, will find this a welcome source of answers to their questions. Not the least of these is the one frequently asked of me during my long service in the Library of Congress as Chief of the Rare Book Division. How can I best treat the leather bindings in my personal library ? But this is only one of the thousands of questions to which this dictionary provides the ready answers. The text speaks accurately and helpfully to all those who will seek it out and profit from the immense amount of information it presents in a lucid and comprehensible form.

FREDERICK R. GOFF Honorary Consultant in Early Printed Books Library of Congress Preface Although numerous books, both theoretical and practical, have been published on the subject of bookbinding and the conservation of archival materials, there would seem to be a need for one that approaches the subject by examining the meaning and usage of the many terms, expressions, and names pertaining to the various subjects. The nomenclature of bookbinding, its offshoots and more recent progeny, has not, at least insofar as the present writers have been able to determine, been presented in a comprehensive dictionary, although various aspects of the book and its production have been explored in dictionary form, sometimes superlatively, as in the American Paper and Pulp Association's Dictionary of Paper and John Carter's A B C for Book Collectors. The authors of this volume hope that it will help fill a considerable gap in the literature of conservation, one that has for some time been all too evident. Although this dictionary is intended first and foremost for those actively involved in one or more aspects of the overall field of bookbinding and book conservation, including bookbinders, conservators of library and archival materials, and the like, it is perhaps no less intended for those working in related fields, such as bibliography and librarianship, where the many terms and expressions relating to the overall field may be less familiar and even more confusing. The compilers accept full responsibility for the selection of terms for inclusion, as well as for the even more difficult task of rejection. The definitions themselves, although herein the responsibility of the same persons, were, whenever possible, drawn from the most authoritative sources available (as indicated by the number in parentheses at the end of a definition, which refers to the Sources and Bibliography section) and supplemented by the experience of the authors. Even though the bibliography and sources cited represent but a relatively small segment of the extensive corpus of literature in the field of conservation, we believe they provide a reasonably good sampling and may benefit the reader by offering an authoritative source for the terms and sometimes providing a source for further investigation. Definitions that do not cite a source are entirely the responsibility of the authors. Where a term has more than one definition, each is numbered and arranged in its descending order of significance in relation to bookbinding. The arrangement of the dictionary is letter‐by‐letter, rather than word‐by‐word, which means that, while the placement of terms such as C‐stage, or m.m. system, etc., will be within the body of the respective letters of the alphabet, and not at the beginning, there should be no problem with locating hyphenated or one‐ or two‐word structures, such as springback, or the more accepted spring‐back, as long as the spelling of the term is known. The same is true of fore edge (correct), as opposed to foreedge (sometimes used but awkward). (Foredge would be incorrect.) Fore edge, it should be noted, is only hyphenated when used as a modifier, e.g., fore‐edge painting. The arrangement of the dictionary, then, is: head headband headbanding headbolt head box headcap headed outline tool head trim The most common (sometimes simply the most commonly encountered) form or spelling of a term has been used, e.g., myrabolans, not myrabalans, gauffered edges, not gauffred, gaufré, or goffered, with the variations in spelling being included with the bold‐faced heading. Where a term is also called by another name the synonym is given at the end of the definition, e.g.: abaca. Also called "manila hemp." adhesive binding. Also called "perfect binding" or "unsewn binding." See references have been used extensively, as have see also references, which refer the reader to other terms closely, or sometimes only indirectly, related to the term being discussed. See also references and cross references to the terms defined in this dictionary which are cited within the definition itself are set in small capitals, e.g.: forel. A grade of PARCHMENT made from split sheepskin and dressed in imitation of VELLUM. There is always the problem of the extent to which one wishes to go in defining any one term. While there may be relatively little one can say, or would want to say, about a material such as Armenian bole, or a procedure such as lengthwise lettering, one could offer quite a lengthy discourse on the finer considerations of break or the molecular structure of glue. But this is a dictionary, not an encyclopedia, a guide to the vocabulary of a field, not a compendium on a specific subject. A number of persons, both near and far, have generously contributed both their time and expertise in evaluating and criticizing this work. George Kelly, Research Scientist, Research and Testing Office of the Library's Preservation Office, read and commented on the chemical terms. Harold Tribolet, retired, formerly Manager, Graphic Conservation Department, R. R. Donnelly & Sons, Chicago, Illinois, read and offered comments on an earlier version of the work. Bernard Middleton, of London, bookbinder and historian of bookbinding and its related subjects, read and offered extensive comments on the manuscript, especially those terms relating to hand bookbinding and bookbinding history. John Chalmers, bibliophile and former Librarian of the Washington Cathedral Library, Mount Saint Alban, Washington, D.C., read the final version and wrote many pages of comments and criticism. Betty Roberts read and reread several manuscripts and proofread still others. Margaret Schaffer typed the final manuscript and also read the galleys and page proof. Our deep and heartfelt thanks to all.
a
"The front or recto side of a leaf of a book. It is called "a" when the leaves rather than the pages are numbered. The back or verso side is referred to as b." See also: FOLIATION (2).
aa pattern
The code designation for a book cloth embossed with a watered silk pattern over the T PATTERN, producing a MOIRÉ EFFECT. See also: MOIRÉ BOOK CLOTH.
abaca
A type of plantain or banana (Musa textilis), native to the Philippine Islands. The outer sheaths of its leaf stems yield a fiber used extensively in the manufacture of certain papers, e.g., saturating papers, where great strength is required. The fibers range in length from 3 to 12 mm, the average being 6 mm, and vary in thickness from 0.016 to 0.032 mm, averaging 0.024 mm. They taper very gradually towards the ends; the central canal is large, and the fine cross-hatchings are numerous. Also called "Manila hemp." (17, 323)
aberrant copy
A copy of a book that has unmistakable binding and/or printing errors and not merely simple defects. (156)
abhesive
A material having the capability of resisting ADHESION. Surfaces are coated with abhesive substances to reduce sticking, heat sealing, and the like. Silicone paper is an example of an abhesive material. (222)
abrasion
The rubbing or wearing away of a material due to contact with another material. Some very large books, manuscripts, etc., may be damaged by abrasion because of the large surface area of the leaves rubbing over one another (particularly when the publication is being opened or closed), as may the leather coverings of books when they are removed from the shelves. Dust also, is a significant cause of abrasion of book papers and covers.
abrasion resistance
The ability of materials, such as paper, board, cloth, leather, etc., to withstand the abrading action of the same or another material, e.g., other paper, dust, a book shelf, etc. The property is usually measured in terms of rate of loss of material by weight when abraded under specified conditions and length of time. See also: RESISTANCE TO WEAR. (17, 58, 72)
abrasives
Substances used to wear down or clean other substances. Abrasives may occur naturally (e.g., diamond, corundum, pumice, etc.), or be manufactured (e.g., silicon carbide, fused alumina, metallic abrasives, and the like). The hardness of an abrasive is measured by MOHS' SCALE, which is arbitrary. For numerous grinding and buffering purposes, the graded grains of abrasive are bonded together in a vitreous rubber or metallic matrix to produce grinding wheels; for hand use, the grains are bonded to paper or cloth by means of a suitable adhesive.
absolute humidity
The actual quantity of water vapor present in a given volume of air. Absolute humidity is expressed either in grams per cubic meter, or in grams per cubic foot. See also: HUMIDITY; RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
absorbency
The degree of receptivity of a material to liquids, either in liquid or gaseous form. Measures of absorbency include: 1) the time a material requires to absorb a specific volume of liquid; 2) the rate of rise of a liquid along a vertical strip of a material, the end of which is immersed in the liquid; 3) the total area of a specimen wetted by the liquid within a specified time period; and 4) the total absorptive capacity of a material expressed as the quantity of liquid absorbed by a completely saturated specimen. Absorbency is of importance because paper, for example, generally has the ability to absorb or give up moisture depending upon the wetness, i.e., RELATIVE HUMIDITY, of the atmosphere around it, and, because the effect is not uniform in all directions. Because of the latter, the MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper used in producing books becomes an important factor in both printing and bookbinding. See also: COCKLE (1); WARPING. (17, 72, 144)
absorbent papers
A group of soft, unsized papers used to soak up water and other liquids. Although not sized, the papers may be treated with synthetic resins as a method of enhancing their wet strength. Absorbent papers include blotting papers, as well as the base papers used in the manufacture of IMITATION LEATHER, VEGETABLE PARCHMENT PAPER, WET-STRENGTH PAPER, and the like. (17, 290, 324)
absorption
A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the capillary or cellular attraction of a surface to draw off a liquid adhesive into the substrate.
acacia
A genus of woody plants of the family Leguminosae. The sap and pods of certain species, notable Acacia arabica and A. senegal, are used in the manufacture of GUM ARABIC. Acacia mimoa, A. mollisima and A. catechu (also called Borneo cutch) are also used in the tanning of leather. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (130, 175)
acacia gum
See: GUM ARABIC.
acanthus
The name given a leaf of the acanthus plant (Acanthus spinosus) introduced as ornamentation in ancient Greek architecture. It has been applied in various modified forms in succeeding styles of architecture. In bookbinding, the acanthus ornamentation is a typical impression of the finishing tool cut to represent two such leaves pointing in different directions. The acanthus decoration was also used as a decorative motif by illuminators of manuscripts, especially Carolingian artists of the 9th century. (250)
accelerated aging test
A procedure which is designed to indicate in a relatively short period of time what will happen to materials, such as paper, ink, etc., over a period of years in storage. It commonly involves heating the specimen in an oven under specified controlled conditions. Under ideal circumstances, the material is exposed to an environment which increases the rate of its degradation without changing its nature. It is generally accepted, for example, that heating paper for three days in an oven at 100° C is equivalent in its effect to approximately 25 years under normal library storage conditions. Although sound in theory, accelerated aging tests are, at this time, of limited usefulness. The reason is that conditions of storage, which vary widely, have a considerable influence on the degree of permanence; also, it is difficult to verify empirically the accuracy of such tests except by experiments conducted over a number of years. Such tests have actually been made, although to a limited extent. It is known, for example, that the strength of paper tends to diminish in storage, and experiments have indicated that the FOLDING ENDURANCE declines to a significantly greater extent than such other properties as tensile, or tearing, strength; consequently, folding endurance tests conducted subsequent to accelerated aging may well provide a good indication of a general loss of strength. In addition, as to the rate of deterioration, the effect of heat is very much like that of natural aging under average conditions; therefore, it is probably reasonable to assume that heat affords a practical means of accomplishing accelerated aging. (18, 62, 144)
accordion fold
See: CONCERTINA FOLD.
accordion-pleated fold
See notes on the electronic edition A method of folding endpapers so that the pleat provides a hinge at the inner joint of the cover. The pleat also provides for expansion to allow the covers to swing open freely and not exert strain on the first and last leaves of the book. In certain cases, however, it can also create a sharp, knife-like fold which, if wide enough, may cause a brittle leaf to bend sharply and crack at that point. (81)
account book
See: BLANKBOOK.
account-book binding
See: BLANKBOOK BINDING.
account-book paper
See: LEDGER PAPER.
acetate
The salt or ester of ACETIC ACID. See also: CALCIUM ACETATE, CELLULOSE ACETATE, POLYVINYL ACETATE.
acetate envelopes
Envelopes, usually made of transparent cellulose acetate. used for the temporary protection of documents, letters, prints, photographs, maps, etc. They are superior to paper envelopes in that they substantially reduce the danger of acid transfer. Their use, however, is declining in favor of polyester envelopes. See also: CELLULOSE ACETATE; POLYESTER FIBERS.
acetate ink
An ink with special adhering qualities intended for drawing or printing on such materials as films and acetates.
acetic acid
A volatile, colorless acid (CH3MCOOH), prepared by the oxidation of acetaldehyde, by oxidation of ethyl alcohol, or by the distillation of wood. It is used extensively in the manufacture of CELLULOSE ACETATE, and has been used for washing leather bindings to remove grease prior to tooling. Being a relatively weak organic acid, as well as volatile, it is not considered to be particularly harmful to paper or leather, and is to be preferred to ordinary vinegar in preparing leather or book edges for tooling or gilding, as vinegar is likely to contain traces of sulfuric acid. (198)
acetic ether
See: ETHYL ACETATE.
acetone
A colorless, volatile, flammable ketone (CH3COCH3), having a pleasing odor, that occurs in pyroligneous acid and can be prepared by dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol, by bacterial fermentation of corn mash, and by other means. It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether. Acetone is effective as a solvent in removing pressure sensitive tape from paper because it dissolves not only the adhesive but (in some cases) the tape itself. Its use is limited, however, because of its tendency to dissolve ink, and its highly flammable nature. In leather manufacture, it is used as a solvent for finishes. It is also used to prepare other solvents, such as methyl isobutyl ketone and mesityl alcohol, and as a solvent for paints, varnishes, lacquers, and cellulose acetate. Acetone decomposes photochemically to produce ethane, carbon monoxide and small amounts of diacetyl and methane. (173, 306)
acid
A substance capable of forming hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. The majority of inorganic acids may be regarded as compounds of an acidic oxide and water; where the oxide involved is that of a metal, it may exhibit amphoteric characteristics, i.e., act sometimes as an acid and sometimes as a base, depending upon the other materials present. Typical organic acids contain the COOH group, but other acid groupings, e.g., the sulfonic—SO3H, give acidic properties to organic compounds. Aqueous solutions of acids have a sharp taste, turn litmus red, liberate CO2, form a metallic carbonate, and evolve hydrogen in reaction with certain metals, e.g., iron. The 'strength' of an acid is measured by the value of its dissociation constant, a strong acid such as hydrochloric being substantially fully ionized in solution, and a weak acid such as formic being predominantly unionized. Acids, and particularly the inorganic acids (because of their corrosiveness and low volatility), are harmful to paper and bookbinding materials. Their presence weakens the holding power of the individual links of the cellulose chains of paper, causing brittleness; results in corrosive effects in some inks; and weakens the fibers of leather. The source of acids in archival materials may be intrinsic or extrinsic. They may be present in the materials used in the manufacture of paper, adhesives, leather, etc., and may be left in intentionally, e.g., alum-rosin sizing; they may be introduced during manufacture and not sufficiently removed, e g., acids used in clearing and/or dyeing leather; or they may gain access during storage, e.g., sulfuric acid in paper or leather, resulting from the atmospheric pollutant, sulfur dioxide (SO2). See also: ACID GASES. (72, 195, 198, 306)
acid dyes
A very large class of dyes containing acidic groups, such as the sodium salts of sulfonic acids or phenolic groups. They are more soluble and have less tinctorial value than BASIC DYES but they also have greater light fastness. See: FAST COLORS. They do not form lakes with tannin. Acid dyes are used in dyeing leather, paper, etc., and their particular value lies in their ability to produce brighter, more uniform colors. They are normally applied from an acid dye liquor (acetic, formic, or sulfuric acid); however, unless applied from a neutral or only slightly acid dyebath, i.e., pH of 6.0 to 7.0, their use is likely to result in acid degradation of the material dyed. See also: FUGITIVE COLORS; LAKE. (17, 67, 72, 363)
acid-free leather
Ostensibly, leather manufactured without the use of acids, but interpreted by most producers to mean leather from which as much acid as possible has been removed. The removal of acid used in producing leather is a costly and time-consuming process, and calls for repeated washing of the stock. Tanning agents which contain a relatively high amount of salts of weak acids, of which MYRABOLANS is one, are said to protect leather against acids used in manufacture or those absorbed from the atmosphere. (175, 306)
acid-free paper
In principle, papers which contain no free acid and have a pH value of 7.0 or greater. In practice, papermakers consider a paper having a pH value of 6.0 or greater to be acid free. Such papers may be produced from cotton fibers, rags, esparto, jute, chemical wood pulps, or virtually any other fiber, with special precautions being taken during manufacture to eliminate any active acid that might be present in the paper pulp. However free of acid the paper may be immediately after manufacture, the presence of residual chlorine from bleaching operations, aluminum sulfate (alum) from sizing, or sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, may lead to the formation of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid unless the paper has been buffered with a substance capable of neutralizing acids. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE. (144, 198)
acid gases
Gases which may form destructive acids in paper, board, leather, and other book materials. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), present in the air as a pollutant, is one such gas; it can form highly destructive sulfuric acid (H2SO4), either by oxidizing to form sulfur trioxide (SO3), which in the presence of water vapor, is transformed into H2SO4, or by combining directly with water vapor to form sulfurous acid (H2SO), which, while a weak acid itself, reacts with oxygen to form H2SO4. It is suspected that the rate of conversion is increased by the presence in the paper of metallic catalysts, such as iron or copper, which may enter the paper during manufacture, but as yet there is no proof of this. (193, 265)
acidity
A condition or state in which the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution exceeds that of hydroxyl ions. Acidity is probably the most important single factor affecting the permanence of archival materials. Acidity alone, however, does not necessarily connote destructiveness; the nature of the acid, i.e., the strength of its acidic properties, is of more importance than its quantity; e.g., a relatively small amount of sulfuric acid may have a greater destructive effect than a larger quantity of lactic acid. Because of this, both pH value and titration are necessary to achieve adequate evaluation of the potentially destructive effect of an acid. See also: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION. (144)
acid migration
The transfer of acid from a material containing acid to one containing less or no acid. This may occur either when the two materials are in contact with each other, or by vapor transfer from one material to nearby materials not actually in contact with it. Boards, endpapers, and protective tissues, as well as the paper covers of books and pamphlets, may contain acid and transfer it to otherwise low-acid or acid-free paper of the text. Also called "acid transfer." See also: BARRIER SHEET.
acid size
A ROSIN SIZE that contains an appreciable part of unsaponified but emulsified free rosin. If, when diluted, the rosin size produces a milky emulsion, it is then known as "white size."
acid transfer
See: ACID MIGRATION.
acid wash
A solution consisting of hydrochloric acid diluted in water. At one time it was used to clean grease and other foreign material from the edges of books prior to gilding. It was usually applied after the initial scraping and sanding, and before the final light sanding.
acme seal
The now obsolete name given a SEALSKIN, dyed and having a plain, dull finish and a natural grain.
acrylic resin
acrylic coating acrylic plastic
A thermoplastic resin prepared by polymerizing acrylic acid (C3H4O2) or methacrylic acid (C4H6O2), or a derivative of either, especially an ester, e.g., methyl methacrylate. One such acrylic resin, polymethyl acrylate, which is a tough rubbery material, is used, usually as manufactured in emulsion form, for textile and leather finishes, lacquers, and pressure sensitive adhesives, and as a mixture with clay to coat papers used in high gloss printing. (42, 364)
additives
1. Substances added in small proportions to products to improve their performance, or to enhance their attractiveness or value. Additives are also used to prevent bacterial action, drying, staling, as well as to inhibit corrosion, oxidation, decomposition, etc. 2. All of the nonfibrous raw materials used in making paper. They may be added at any point during the papermaking process or after the paper has been manufactured. Treatment of the entire sheet (internal treatment) entails mixing the additives with the paper pulp, in which case they are known as wet-end additives. If only the surface of the sheet is to be treated, the additives are applied directly to the surface of the paper, and are known as external additives. Paper additives are used to color and size paper, control pH, improve physical properties, and increase wet strength. They are also used as defoamers, dispersants, plasticizers, preservatives, retention aids, and the like. (58, 98)
adherend
A material that is held to another material by means of an ADHESIVE.
adhesion
A term indicating that two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces, which may consist of valence forces (chemical adhesion), interlocking action (mechanical adhesion), VAN DER WAALS FORCES, or combinations thereof. (309)
adhesive
A general term for any of several substances capable of bonding materials to each other by chemical or mechanical action, or both, and which may be activated by water, non-aqueous solvents, pressure, heat, cold, or other means. Adhesives may be classified by temperature (hot-, cold-, intermediate-, room-temperature setting, etc.); by type of solvent (water, alcohol, etc.); by type of application (brush, roller, spray, etc.); or by origin (animal, vegetable, or synthetic). They may be further classified as natural or synthetic (resin). The natural adhesives are primarily of animal or vegetable origin (sodium silicate (water glass) being virtually the only inorganic natural product important as an adhesive) and include animal glue, casein, blood albumen (which is unimportant as an adhesive in archival work), and vegetable adhesives. The synthetic resin adhesives include the thermoplastic resins, the thermosetting resins, and the elastomeric adhesives. The adhesives used in archival work must exhibit three properties: 1) they must wet the surfaces to be joined but not so much as to cause the adhered materials to cockle; 2) they must have sufficient flexibility so as not to crack when the joint is flexed; and 3) they must be strong but not as strong as the materials they bond, so that stress to the point of failure of the joint will not damage the archival material but will result only in the failure of the adhesive. See also: ALBUMEN; CASEIN; CEMENT (2); COLD GLUE; DEXTRIN; FISH GLUE; FLEXIBLE GLUE; GLAIR; GLUCOSE-GLYCOL PASTE; GLUE; HARD GLUE; HOT-MELT ADHESIVE; ISINGLASS; MICROENCAPSULATED ADHESIVE; MUCILAGE; PADDING COMPOUND; PASTE; POLYVINYL ACETATE; RABBIT SKIN GLUE; RESINOUS ADHESIVES; RICE GLUE; RUBBER ADHESIVES; VEGETABLE GLUE; WOOD PASTE. (48, 89, 102, 149, 186, 198, 222, 309)
adhesive binding
A method of securing loose leaves into a solid text block by means of an adhesive rather than by means of sewing, stitching, etc. In general, there are four techniques of adhesive binding in use today: 1) PADDING (2); 2) manual adhesive binding, which is still practiced by hand binders and some library binders; 3) semiautomatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in library binderies and some paperback edition binderies; and 4) fully automatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in edition binding. Two basic methods are used to secure the leaves in adhesive binding: 1) application of the adhesive to the edges of the collected and clamped leaves, without fanning, in which case there is little if any penetration of adhesive between the sheets; and 2) fanning the clamped leaves, either in one direction or both (in the latter case 180°), so that the adhesive is applied a slight distance onto the leaves, thus forming a more secure bond. A HOT-MELT ADHESIVE is usually employed in the first method, whereas a cold RESINOUS ADHESIVE, e.g., POLYVINYL ACETATE, is typical in the latter method. It is not unusual, however, to use a combination of the two adhesives. The resinous adhesives are generally used alone, but hot melts may be used in either a one-shot operation (hot melt alone), or in a two-shot application (a primer of polyvinyl adhesive, followed by the hot melt, in which case the leaves are usually fanned upon application of the cold adhesive). Adhesive binding generally results in a book that opens easily and lies flat. It is also a relatively economical form of binding, especially when long runs of the same edition are being bound. The method lends itself well to the mass production of low-priced paperbacks, catalogs, telephone directories, and the like. It is also finding greater use in library binding for books that are not in sections and have relatively narrow margins, as well as for rebinding books printed on paper that is deteriorating. Adhesive binding, however, is not a satisfactory method of binding coated and similar papers. Adhesive binding, in one form or another, is not a new concept; in fact, it dates back to the 1830s when William Hancock invented the so-called CAOUTCHOUC BINDING in England. Overall, however, even though the method is very practical for books that are to receive heavy use over a relatively short period, (e.g., telephone directories), adhesive binding is generally considered to be inferior to the sewn binding and its permanence has yet to be demonstrated. Also called "perfect binding." or "unsewn binding. See also: ADHESIVE BINDING MACHINE; ONE-SHOT METHOD; TWO-SHOT METHOD. (15, 16, 81, 89, 294, 320)
adhesive binding machine
A machine that applies an adhesive, and sometimes a cloth lining, to the edges of the leaves or sections of a book. Adhesive binding machines may be classified as: 1) intermittent, with all operations being performed while the book is stopped; and 2) continuous, with all operations being performed while the book is in motion. In addition, they may be classified as: 1) inline, with the books being carried in one direction at a constant elevation; 2) rotary or circular, with books being carried in a circular path; and 3) oval, with books being carried over an extended oval path. There are variations within all of these categories. Adhesive binding machines used in library binderies are generally in-line machines which operate intermittently or continuously, with the books being inserted and removed from the machine by hand. Adhesive binding machines date back to the latter part of the 19th century, but their greatest period of development was following World War II. (89, 320)
adhesive dope
A chemical solvent used as a wash for the turn-in areas of imitation-leather book cloths and other impervious materials to facilitate adhesion of the board papers. It has very limited use today.
adhesive glassine tape
A gummed glassine paper, generally of BASIS WEIGHT of 25 pounds (24 X 36 – 500). It is sometimes used in mending the leaves of books, as well as for hinges, for which purposes it is supplied in rolls of narrow width. Its use for the repair of archival materials is not recommended, as it has a tendency to stain the paper and is difficult to remove. See also: HEAT-SET TISSUE. (17)
adhesive paper
A paper coated with a water-activated, heat-activated, or pressure-activated adhesive. See: GUMMED PAPER; HEAT-SET TISSUE; PRESSURE-SENSITIVE TAPE; SE-LIN LABELING SYSTEM.
adjusted
A MARBLING SIZE that has been put into proper condition to receive the colors by the addition of OX-GALL, so that when the colors are dropped on they will spread evenly. The correct amount of gall will cause a drop of marbling color to expand to its maximum without thinning. See also: MARBLING. (335)
advance sheets
1. A copy of a book, in sheets or gatherings, for preliminary notices, simultaneous publication in two or more places, or for early cataloging. Advance sheets for review or early cataloging are usually in unbound gatherings. 2. Generally, sheets of a publication e.g., some serial publications or other documents, printed separately for use before they are issued collectively. In a stricter sense these are more appropriately called "preprints." (69, 140)
advertisements bound-in
A statement to the effect that advertisements have been included in the binding of a volume bound from parts or issues, or in the rebinding of a volume, usually a serial publication. Some libraries instruct the binder to remove all advertisements not containing subject matter (on either side of the leaf), or those that are paginated separately. This is done to save shelf space; it is questionable, however, whether sufficient space is saved to warrant the effort. In addition, the presence of advertisements can be of value to scholars and is of value to collectors.
aerosol
A dispersion in which a material is dissolved or suspended in a liquid which volatilizes to produce a fine spray when pressure is released. The spray carries the active material. Tn archival work, aerosols are used for dispersing deacidification solutions; in this case the propellant, which must be inert and nonflammable, is frequently a chlorofluorocarbon, e.g., freon 12, dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2).
against the grain
Paper which has been folded at right angles to the direction in which the fibers tend to lie, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION. A well-produced book always has the grain or machine direction running from head to tail so that the back or binding fold of the paper is not against the grain. Correct grain direction means that the leaves of the book will be more inclined to lie flat when the book is open. The term applies specifically to machine-made paper, as HANDMADE PAPER has no definite grain direction.
agalite
A natural fibrous form of talc, gray in color and consisting principally of hydrated magnesium silicate. It gives paper a greasy or soapy feel. and enables it to take a high finish. It is little used today. (62)
agar
agar-agar
The polysaccharides agarose and agropectin, occurring as cell-wall constituents of red marine algae (genera Gelidium, Gracilaria, etc.), from which it is extracted by hot water. It is available as a dry powder, flakes, or strips. Agar is the metallic (usually calcium) salt of a sulfuric acid ester of a complex polysaccharide of gelactose, but its exact structure is not understood. It dissolves in hot water and, upon cooling, sets to a jelly at concentrations as low as 0.5%. It is used as a gelling and stabilizing agent, as a misciformis sizing for silk, and as an adhesive emulsifying agent. (72)
agate
agate burnisher
A natural stone, consisting of a form of silica, similar to chalcedony, with colored bands of purple or brown, shaped and polished for use as a burnishing tool, particularly in edge gilding. See also: BURNISHER (2).
agatine
A marble pattern consisting of black in large spots, green in rivers, scarlet in sprinkles, and blue in small spots. Various designs are made from this combination of colors. (152) "
"agenda" format
A narrow book format, i.e., one where the height of the book is disproportionately greater than its width, to the extent of 3 :1 or greater, as compared with the usual ratio of 2:1 or 3:2. The "agenda" format proportions are similar to those of the consular diptych. The diptych was often adapted in the middle ages for use as covers of ceremonial lists and processional music, which had to be written in a format to conform with these constrictions; the "agenda" possibly stems from that format. (347)
aggressive tack
See: DRY TACK.
aging
A general term describing the natural degradation of paper, adhesives, leather, and other archival materials, while in storage. With some textiles, aging denotes oxidation by exposure to air. Aging is greatly influenced by the environment in which the materials are stored. See also: ACCELERATED AGING TEST; ENVIRONMENT; PERMANENT MATERIALS; PERMANENT PAPER; YELLOWING.
air-dried
Handmade- and the better machine-made papers dried in a current of air, either at normal or elevated temperatures, as distinguished from paper which is dried by contact with heated rolls. This method of drying reduces stresses, including DRIED-IN STRAIN, which are imposed on paper while drying, because the sheet is allowed to dry, and therefore contract, at a slower rate. See also: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR. (98)
air dry
A condition usually associated with paper (and paper pulp) and leather. Paper is said to be air dry when its moisture content (usually 3 to 9%) is in equilibrium with the atmospheric conditions to which it is exposed. Leather is considered to be air dry when its moisture content is approximately 14% of the weight of the leather. Their different moisture contents in the air dry state makes it difficult to regulate the conditions of storage of a leather bound book. (17, 363)
airmail paper
A lightweight paper made for printing publications such as newspapers that are to be sent by airmail. It usually contains fillers to improve opacity, and is generally made in a basis weight of 10 pounds (17 X 22 – 500). Airmail paper is also used at times for guarding sections, mending tears, etc. For these purposes, it is preferable that the paper have a high rag content and an alkaline reserve of about 3%. (17, 58)
air permeability
The property which permits the passage of air when a difference in pressure exists across the boundaries of the material. Air permeability is one indication of a substance's porosity. See also: VAPOR PERMEABILITY. (17)
Aitken, Robert
1735-1802
One of a group of Scottish craftsmen in the bookbinding trade who immigrated to America in the years immediately before the Revolutionary War. Aitken appeared in Philadelphia in 1769, as a bookseller. He returned to Scotland that same year, apparently to learn bookbinding, because upon his return two years later he advertised himself as both bookbinder and bookseller. After 1773 he began to print books as well, and, in 1782, published the "Aitken Bible," the first complete Bible in English to be published on the North American continent. Aitken produced hundreds of bookbindings ranging in style from paper wrappers (both blue and marbled) to more or less richly gilt leather bindings. His work included blue paper boards, raised cords as well as flat spines, both plain and marbled endpapers, and bindings in full calf- or sheepskin with red title labels and gilt bands across the spines. Although Aitken produced scores of "plain" bindings, he was also capable of a binding style that was rich and luxurious in its gold tooling, especially for American bookbinding of that time. He was, in general, an imaginative and diverse bookbinder, although he was not known for his exactness and polish in finishing, nor was he particularly artistic. Because Aitkin was also an engraver, it has been suggested that he may have cut his own finishing tools, possible in imitation of Scottish designs. (45, 200, 347)
ajoure bindings
A style of bookbinding executed during the last third of the 15th century in Venice. Ajoure bindings were embellished with pierced or translucent patterns, in a manner referred to as "letting in the daylight." They generally featured openwork designs of foliage, angels' heads, satyr-masks, birds, baskets of fruits, etc. (156, 347)
à la cathédral
See: ARCHITECTURAL STYLE.
album
1. A book of envelopes or jackets, usually with a decorative cover and often with descriptive notes. It is intended to contain phonograph records. 2. A book of blank leaves designed to contain written records, clippings, postage stamps, and the like.
albumen
A class of protein found in egg whites. A mixture of egg white and vinegar (GLAIR) is used in book finishing; its purpose is to secure the gold leaf to the covering material prior to the impression of the heated tool. Albumen is also used as an adhesive in edge gilding.
album paper
A type of cover paper used for photograph albums. It is manufactured in gray and black in basis weights of 50 to 80 pounds (20 X 26 – 500). A basic requirement of this paper is that it not cockle when wetted with adhesives, while another essential requirement is that it contain no impurities which might alter or damage the photographs. (17, 324)
alchemic gold
A gold ink composition developed early in the 20th century as a substitute for imitation gold leaf. It was said to be "free from acid," as well as non-tarnishing. Its principal virtue seems to have been that it eliminated the necessity of sizing, laying-on, and rubbing off. (164, 264)
aldehyde tanning
Essentially a formaldehyde tannage. Several aldehydes react with hide protein to prevent putrefaction, but only FORMALDEHYDE has been used to any extent in the manufacture of leather. Formaldehyde is soluble in water, the resultant solution generally being known as FORMALIN. Aldehyde tanning is used principally in tanning white, washable leathers, usually sheep or lambskins, with the grain split or shaved off. Such leathers are seldom used in bookbinding. See also: ZIRCONIUM TANNING. (291, 306, 363)
alder (bark)
The bark of the common alder tree (Alnus glutinosa), used to some extent in small tanneries in southeastern Europe and Turkey for tanning leather. The bark contains 9 to 16% or more tannin, while the dried fruit yields about 16% tannin. The use of alder bark is not extensive—mainly because, when used alone, it imparts an objectionable reddish-brown color to the leather, and also tends to make the leather brittle. Other alder barks have also been used in tanning, including Alnus incana (in Europe and North America), A. nepalesis and A. nitida (in India), and A. cordata (in Italy). (175)
Aldine leaves
Small finishing stamps bearing a leaf and stem design. It was employed by the binders of Aldus Manutius, and also extensively by 19th century bookbinders on monastic bindings. See also: ALDINE (ITALIAN) STYLE. (334)
Aldine style
Italian style
A style of bookbinding originated by Aldus Manutius but not restricted to the books printed by Aldus or his family. Aldine bindings, which were produced during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, were characterized by the use of brown or red morocco; by solid-faced ornaments with no shading (which were similar to those used in printing the text); and by title or author in simple panels in the center of the upper cover, which could be read while the book lay on a shelf or table. Early examples of the Aldine style were tooled in blind with an outer frame and a center ornament. Possibly because of the Greek binders Aldus employed, as well as the fact that gold tooling (probably) originated in the Near East, Aldine tools display definite signs of Eastern origin. Early Italian bindings convey a consistent feeling of the shape and proportion of the book, which is demonstrated by: 1) the use of border and panel as schemes of design; 2) a remarkable sense of the value accorded ornamentation; 3) the areas of leather left undecorated; and 4) restraint in the decorative detail with the result that it was always in proper subordination to the overall effect of the embellishment. See PLATE IV. (124, 172, 280, 334)
algarobilla
The dry pods of a shrub native to Chile (Caesalpinia brevifolia), from which a tannin is extracted. As a tanning material, algarobilla somewhat resembles DIVI-DIVI; however, it is less prone to discolor the leather. It also produces a better weight and imparts greater firmness to leather. Algarobilla gives a light-colored tan liquor which before fermentation colors leather slightly to a light reddish yellow; however, after fermentation it produces a very bright color. It is usually blended with other tannins. Although algarobilla is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins, it penetrates the hide substance very rapidly, and has a fairly low natural pH and salts content and a relatively high acids content. The tannin content of the pods is generally in the range of 45-50%. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS, (175)
alkali
A substance which has the properties of a base, especially a hydroxide or carbonate of an alkali metal, e.g., calcium. Since all of these substances, when dissolved, increase the hydroxyl ion concentration, the term alkali is synonymous with base. An aqueous alkaline solution is one with a pH value greater than 7.0. Alkalies are used in conservation work principally in adhesives, and in deacidifying and buffering paper. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE; HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION.
alkaline buffer
See: ALKALINE RESERVE.
alkaline filler
A FILLER (2) used in the manufacture of paper. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the most commonly used alkaline filler.
alkaline process
A method of treating fibrous raw materials with alkaline solutions to liberate fibers or to purify paper pulps. Lime, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate, and sodium sulfide are used in this process, with sodium hydroxide being used most often. It may be used in both the sulfate and sulfite processes. (17, 144)
alkaline reserve
A buffer, or reserve, of an alkaline substance added to a paper for the purpose of counteracting any acid which may be introduced into it subsequent to DEACIDIFICATION. Soaking paper in a solution of calcium bicarbonate or magnesium bicarbonate adds a small amount of calcium or magnesium carbonate which neutralizes any acid present and also provides a reserve to counteract acid which may enter the paper at some future time. (The bicarbonates are converted to the carbonates during the drying of the paper, with the liberation of carbon dioxide.) The treatment is effective only as long as free alkali remains. Papers which are to remain acid free for long periods of time, e.g., 500 years, should have approximately 3% precipitated carbonate by weight of paper. (198)
all along
all across all on
A method of sewing a book, usually by hand and generally on cords or tapes. The thread goes "all along," inside the fold of the section—that is, from kettle stitch to kettle stitch of each successive section, one complete length of thread for each section. "All along" is traditionally associated with the best method of sewing a book by hand, although books were sewn TWO ON and even THREE ON when the sections were very thin or when an economical method was required. The term is also used, somewhat incorrectly, to describe machine book sewing when each section is sewn with the full number of threads. Also called "one on" and "one sheet on." (236, 335)
alligator grained leather
A grain effect embossed on various types of leathers, such as calf, sheep, or cow, in imitation of the genuine reptilian leather. See: ALLIGATOR LEATHER.
alligator leather
A leather produced from the skin of any member of the reptilian order Crocodilla. Generally, only the belly area of the animal is used, the heavily scaled back being too course and horny. The beauty of alligator leather stems in part from the fact that the scales have a natural "enamel," which, originally, was usually destroyed by crude tanning methods. Later it was preserved, and even enhanced, by "plating" the skin with heated metal plates which gave it its high glaze. Alligator leather is very durable and also very expensive. This term is largely confined to the United States; in Europe it is generally called "crocodile leather." (351, 363)
all on
See: ALL ALONG.
all-over style
1. A style of finishing in which the entire cover, as distinct from the corners, center or borders, is decorated by a single motif, multiple motifs, or a decorative roll. 2. Any pattern in a book cloth which runs both across and down the roll. (130, 156)
alpha cellulose
That part of a cellulosic material that is insoluble in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20° C. under specified conditions. While alpha cellulose consists principally of cellulose, it does include other components that are insoluble under the test conditions. Because the permanence of paper depends to some extent on the absence of non-cellulosic impurities, the determination of true cellulose (alpha cellulose) gives an indication of the stability of the paper, and therefore its permanence. See also: BETA CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE; GAMMA CELLULOSE. (17, 72, 144)
alpha grass
See: ESPARTO (GRASS).
alpha protein
A soy bean protein used in the manufacture of adhesives that are to be combined with casein glues, or used for coating paper.
alum
A salt used in papermaking and in the TAWING of skins. True (potash) alum is chemically a double salt of aluminum, or potassium aluminum sulfate (K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O). The papermaker's alum in use today is not true alum, but either aluminum sulfate (A12(SO4)3 . 14H2O), (Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O), or a mixture of these hydrates, and is manufactured by treating pulverized bauxite with sulfuric acid. It is soluble in water, and, while slightly alkaline in the dry form, it is decidedly acidic when dissolved in water. Alum has two major functions in papermaking: 1) to control pH; and 2) because of its floculating ability, to retain other additives in the paper, notably the sizing agent. ROSIN is a basic material used in sizing paper today. As a sizing agent it imparts water (ink) resistance to paper; however, in order for the rosin to be able to impart water resistance it must be rendered insoluble, which is the function if alum. Although the full role of alum in the sizing of paper is not completely understood, one of its functions is to make rosin come out of solution (precipitate) while it is in close contact with the fibers of the paper-making slurry. The fibers are thus coated and impregnated with a solid and water-resistant mixture of rosin and what is probably a compound of rosin and aluminum oxide. Although the excessive use of alum is considered detrimental to the permanence of paper, the papermaker tends to overdose with alum rather than underdose, so as to avoid soft-sizing. In addition, alum is considered by some papermakers to be a panacea for other troubles, such as frothing, sticking of the paper web to the wet presses of the papermaking machine, etc. Overdosing with alum leads to excessive acidity and, under certain circumstances, may lead to severe deterioration of the paper. While alum is not a particularly strong acid, in the presence of certain other substances it can assume a greater strength. Chlorides, which may be present in the paper as a result of bleaching processes, or natural to the water itself, can be particularly harmful. Excessive alum, in the form of aluminum sulfate, may react with chlorides present to form aluminum chloride (AlCl3), which in the presence of moisture and heat, will form hydrochloric acid (HCl)—one of the most powerful of all acids in its effect on cellulose. Alum is sometimes used in solution to wash the leaves of books; in the past it was added to paste to act as a preservative, or as a hardener to render the dry paste less water soluble. It is also used at times as a mordant for marbling colors. See also: ALUM WATER. (32, 43, 72, 195, 236)
aluminum leaf
A bright leaf or foil made of aluminum and often substituted for silver in blocking edition bindings. While it tarnishes less rapidly than silver, it lacks the appearance of richness and depth of silver leaf. It is also less expensive. (83, 140)
aluminum sulfate
A salt of aluminum (Al2(SO4)3), occurring naturally in considerable quantities in alumstone (alumite) and feather alum. It is manufactured by treating bauxite with 80% sulfuric acid at 110° C., the resulting solution being purified, concentrated, and allowed to solidify. See also: ALUM.
alum-size bath
A size bath consisting of ALUM dissolved in water and used by some restorers to remove coffee, tea, blood and some ink stains from paper. (335)
alum-tawed skin
alum "tanning" alum-tawed "leather"
See: TAWING.
alum water
ALUM dissolved in water and used to sponge paper and the edges of books before laying on the marbling colors. The alum acts as a binding medium, attracting and securing the ox-gall and colors to the paper. It also acts as a mordant and is also useful in counteracting excessive gall. (161, 264, 335)
American leather
An obsolete term for one of the varieties of enameled cloth made to imitate leather. See also: IMITATION LEATHER. (256)
American marble
A drawn marble pattern usually used on the edges of stationery bindings, and consisting of black, blue surrounding the black, yellow on the blue, and red on the yellow. The marble is drawn in the same manner as the comb NONPAREIL MARBLE, with an additional drawing of the comb the width of the trough. (264, 339)
American Russia
An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER produced from cowhide or the hide of the American buffalo (bison). It is usually a straight-grained leather. Also called "Russia cowhide."
amorphous
A term applied to adhesives, with reference to their non-crystalline structure.
amylaceous
Pertaining to, or of the nature of STARCH; starchy. See also: PASTE.
amyl acetate
A colorless, volatile liquid ester (C7H14O2) that is very slightly soluble in water, but miscible in alcohol and ether. It is used as a solvent for CELLULOSE ACETATE. Although at one time it was believed to have a preservative effect when applied to leather, it is much too volatile to have afforded lasting protection, even if initially effective.
anchoring
See: TYING DOWN. See also: HEADBAND.
anglos
An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER made in Great Britain from cowhide. See also: AMERICAN RUSSIA. (343)
anhydrous
A term normally used with reference to the chemical salts and solvents, lanolin, etc., meaning that they are free of water.
anhydrous lanolin
See LANOLIN.
aniline
An aromatic primary amine (C6H5NH2). It is a derivative of ammonia in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by the phenyl group. It is manufactured by the reduction of nitrobenzene with iron filings and either hydrochloric acid or ferrous chloride, and subsequent steam distillation after the addition of lime. Aniline is an oily, colorless, toxic liquid, which darkens upon exposure to air. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and forms a number of salts. It is the base from which a great number of intermediates for dyes are prepared, including dimethylaniline and diethylaniline, which in turn yield many so-called BASIC DYES, such as methyl violet, methyline blue and malachite green. (195)
aniline dyed
A leather that has been dyed by immersion in a dyebath and has not received any coating or pigment finish. (61)
aniline dyes
A class of synthetic, organic dyes originally obtained from aniline (coal tars), which were, in fact, the first synthetic dyes. Today the term is used with reference to any synthetic organic dyes and pigments, regardless of source, in contrast to animal or vegetable coloring materials, natural earth pigments, and synthetic inorganic pigments. Aniline dyes are classified according to their degree of brightness or their light fastness. Basic dyes are known for their extreme brightness, as well as for their lack of COLOR FASTNESS. Aniline dyes are used to impart color to paper, cloth, leather, etc. Also called "coal tar dyes." See also: ACID DYES; BASIC DYES; DIRECT DYES; DYE; LAKE. (17, 164, 343)
aniline ink
An inexpensive volatile printing ink consisting of a dyestuff dissolved in a methylated spirit and bound with a resin. It is considered to be a very fast drying ink. Aniline inks are considerably inferior in permanence to many other types of ink, and are also subject to smudging by water. Although all colors are available, they are lacking in COLOR FASTNESS. (144)
aniline leather
A hide or skin that has been tanned with a vegetable material and then colored either by immersion in a dyebath or by staining, and has not been coated or pigmented. Leather so colored has a depth of coloring said to be superior to pigment coloration. (351)
aniline stained
A leather that has been colored by brushing, padding, or spraying, but which has not received any coating or pigmented finish.
animal glue
See: GLUE.
animals-in-foliage panel
A form of decoration consisting of a PANEL (1) divided in half vertically, each half containing curving foliage with an animal within each curve. (250)
animal size
See: SIZE. (2, 3)
animal sized
A paper sized with a gelatin or glue (and sometimes alum, which acts as an insolubilizer). The gelatin or glue-and-alum solution acts as a preservative and enhances the water resistance of the paper. Generally, only high-grade writing papers, bonds, ledgers, and handmade paper are animal sized. See also: SURFACE SIZED; TUB SIZED. (17, 82, 316)
anionic (substances)
Substances, such as dyes, tannins, oils, etc., that dissolve in water and ionize so that the characteristic ion (dye, tannin, oil, etc.) is the anion and carries a negative charge. They tend to precipitate with CATIONIC (positive charge) SUBSTANCES. (98, 306)
aniseed
The seed of anise (Pimpinella anisum), which produces a pungent oil once used as a preservative for paste.
anisotropic behavior
A material, e.g., paper, that exhibits different properties when tested along axes of different direction. Because paper is hygroscopic, a change in the dimension of its fibers takes place when the relative humidity around it changes; the change is transmitted to the entire sheet, with the result that its length and width are increased or decreased. As the majority of the fibers in machine-made paper lie in the direction of the moving wire of the papermaking machine, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION, by far the greater expansion or contraction of dimension of such a paper is in the CROSS DIRECTION, sometimes being on the order of 1.5 to 4.0 times that in the machine direction. Paper exhibits anisotropic behavior basically because of two factors: 1) as stated above, the orientation of the fibers in the machine direction causes them, and therefore the sheet, to expand or contract preferentially in the cross direction. In fact, at one time it was thought that this was the major reason for anisotropic behavior in paper; 2) more recently, however, although orientation of the fibers is still thought to play a role in the behavior, the major reason is considered to be built-in strain, also known as dried-in strain. The matting of fibers formed from the wet slurry on the wire of the machine moves into the dry end of the papermaking machine and is dried rapidly in the drier sections. Because it is wet, the web will contract during drying. Because the tension of the web is in the plane of the machine direction, the paper is able to contract considerably in the cross direction but not in the machine direction, which results in a built- or dried-in strain. The drying is actually so rapid that relaxation of the strain is impossible on the machine, nor does it occur after the web of paper leaves the machine as the dried paper does not have sufficient plasticity for this to happen. Consequently, a machine-made paper has an inherent dried-in strain. Actually, there is some dried-in strain in the cross direction also, as the felts of the machine reduce shrinkage somewhat in that direction. This characteristic results in an anisotropic sheet, one which will expand more in the cross direction than in the machine direction when exposed to an increase in the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. If, at some time in the future, the paper is wetted in water, the dried-in strains will be released and, if the sheet is then allowed to dry freely and without restraint, its anisotropic characteristics will be largely lost. Anisotropic characteristics in paper are of great importance in printing, especially in printing processes which involve wetting the paper.
annatto
A yellowish-red coloring material obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of the annatto tree (Bixa orellana), and sometimes used in coloring leather and cloth. It is soluble in both alcohol and oil. Its lack of COLOR FASTNESS makes it unsuitable for archival use.
antelope-finish suede
A fine, soft leather having a velvety, lustrous nap. It is produced from lamb-, goat-, or calfskin, sueded on the flesh side and finished to resemble antelope leather. (61)
antiblocking agent
A substance used in either a coating mixture or as an overcoating to prevent one sheet of paper from adhering to another, or to any other object, within a specified range of temperature and humidity. Antiblocking agents are usually waxes or synthetic polymers; a light dusting of talcum powder is sometimes used for the same purpose.
antichlor
A substance used in removing the remaining traces of free chlorine or hypochlorite not removed from a paper pulp by washing. Typical antichlors include sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) and sodium thiosulfite (Na2S2O3). The antichlor is usually added to the pulp stock near the end of the bleaching stage, and is allowed to react until no blue coloration is obtained with a potassium-starch indicator. This removes the last traces of hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion, and free chlorine. The reaction products are then washed out. Antichlors are seldom used in multistage bleaching operations, as they are considered to be wasteful of bleaching agents. (72)
antifoam agents
See: DEFOAMERS.
antimony
A metalloid element (Sb) that is usually a metallic silvery white, but is also found in the black amorphous form. It has been used since at least the late 17th century to blacken the edges of books, especially Bibles, prayer books, and the like. See also: BLACK EDGES.
antique
A term used to describe: 1) BLIND TOOLING; 2) a marble pattern (See: ANTIQUE MARBLE); 3) a form of edge decoration (See: ANTIQUE EDGES); 4) leather finished with an old or natural grain- and 5) a paper with a natural rough surface or finish. See: ANTIQUE BOOK PAPER.
antique binding
1. A modern binding executed in the style of some earlier period, but generally with no intent to deceive. See also: CONTEMPORARY BINDING (2). 2. See: ECCLESIASTICAL BINDINGS.
antique book paper
A book paper generally produced in the United States from bleached chemical wood pulp with a large amount of short-fibered pulp and given a soft, relatively rough finish. In Great Britain it is produced largely from ESPARTO (GRASS) pulp. Antique book paper varies from lightweight to relatively heavy weight; 60 pound, basis weight antique bulks approximately 330 pages to the inch. Many books, and particularly novels, are printed on this type of paper, especially those containing only textual matter and/or bold line drawings. Antique papers generally are not suitable for fine line drawings or half-tone illustrations. (17, 72)
antique cover paper
A cover paper with an antique finish.
antique edges
antique style
A further embellishment of the edges of a book following gilding. It involves applying gold of a different hue, e.g., LEMON gold, over the gilded edge, with the design being worked into the overlaid gold; the untouched (new) gold then is rubbed off. Sometimes the effect of antique edges is produced without the designs if the original gold is left unburnished, or is burnished and then washed with water. The technique is seldom employed today. See also: GAUFFERED EDGES. (241, 343)
antique grain
A surface pattern on leather consisting of markings or creases, usually irregular, in which the hollows or valleys are given a contrasting color to produce a two-tone or two-color effect. The creases are produced either by EMBOSSING (1) or BOARDING (1). (61)
antique marble
A series of marble patterns executed by dropping red, black 7 and yellow, or red, blue and yellow, on the marbling size, and raking once up and down; this is followed by an application of green coloring and, if the pattern is to be an antique spot, pink or green spots. Finally, there is a sprinkling of white. Other colors are also used. The antique marble is produced in a variety of patterns, including spots, straight, and curled. (369)
antique tooling
See: BLIND TOOLING.
a pattern
A cloth pattern with a long, narrow grain. Cf: J PATTERN; L PATTERN.
apparent density
The weight per unit volume of a sheet of paper. It is calculated by dividing the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper by its caliper. The value so derived depends upon the definition of a ream, i.e., whether 480, 500, 516, etc., sheets. See also: DENSITY; SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (17)
apparent specific gravity
The weight of a given volume of leather divided by the weight of an equal volume of water, making no allowance for voids or air spaces in the volume of leather measured. See also: SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (363)
appliqué work
A design on EMBROIDERED BINDINGS consisting of spirals in gold and silver which, when flattened, give the appearance of a series of rings. They were sometimes used as a border. When the applique was not very large, a variation was to make a series of small stitches along all edges, masking the stitches with an overlaid gold cord. (111)
apron
1. The lower cloth on a ruling machine that carries the ruled sheets from the lower cords to the lay-boy or receiving box. 2. The extra amount of unprinted paper left to serve as the binding edge of a leaf that folds out. See a1so: FULL APRON.
aqua regia
A mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), in a solution of one part of the former to three parts of the latter. Aqua regia was used in making so-called "killed spirits," largely in the 18th century, to impart a wine-like tint to red marbling color. The "killed spirits" were produced by adding a block of tin to the acid solution, which resulted in the formation of tin chloride (HNO3 + HCl + Sn = SnCl + NO2 + H2O) (152)
aqueous
Containing water, or water based. Adhesive systems such as starch, dextrin, natural gums, animal glue, etc., as well as some inks, certain deacidification systems, leather tannins, bleaching solutions, and the like that use water as the carrier are aqueous systems.
arabesque
A relatively old form of book decoration, revived by French gilders and reintroduced into England in about 1829. It consists of interlaced lines and convoluted curves arranged in a more or less geometrical pattern. The name derives from the fact that it was brought to its highest perfection by Near Eastern artists. The term is also used to describe a style of ornamentation in relief, consisting of fanciful human or animal figures combined with floral forms. Arabesque is also sometimes inappropriately applied to the embossed designs on book covers. (181, 241, 342)
arabesque plates
Solid brass plates cut, usually in intaglio, with a design and imprinted on a leather cover by means of a blocking press, or large fly embossing press. (152, 181)
arabic gum
See: GUM ARABIC.
arabic numerals
The numerical symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, as distinguished from the Roman I, X, L, etc., so called because of their origin in the Near East. They have been used in the foliation of books since the late 15th century. Arabic numerals first appeared in European manuscripts in the 12th century, although they probably came to the Near East by way of India in the 8th century. Arabic numerals are commonly used for paginating the text of a book, although Roman numerals are still often used for preliminary and end matter, despite the obvious affectation. (156)
archil
A dye obtained from certain lichens of the genera Roccella and Lecanora by means of fermentation. Its hue varies from moderate red to dark purplish-red, depending on whether the dye bath is acid or alkaline. It was used in the past in the manufacture of purple marbling color. It has only moderate COLOR FASTNESS. (97, 152)
architectural motif
A form of decoration consisting of a pattern of straight lines running almost the length of the cover and connected alternately at head and tail by heavier horizontal lines. (130)
architectural style
A 16th century style of finishing consisting of architectural motifs—porticoes, moldings, columns, pediments, arches, and the like. The central feature was a pair of columns supporting an arch under which there was a panel for lettering of the title. This style, of which only a relatively few examples have survived, generally emphasized straight and curved fillets, interspaced with shaped tools. The 19th century French bookbinder JOSEPH THOUVENIN revived the style as "a la cathedral.' See: CATHEDRAL BINDINGS. The contents of the books bound in the architectural style seldom related to architecture. (140, 347)
Argentina, Conradus de
See: CONRADUS DE ARGENTINA
Armenian bole
A friable, earthy clay, usually of a red color due to the presence of iron oxide; it consists essentially of hydrous silicates of aluminum and (sometimes) magnesium. It is used as a coloring material and is also applied to the edges of books during gilding. In the latter use it serves both to provide a base for the gold leaf and to impart to it a greater depth and luster. When mixed with paste and a small amount of oil, it may be used to sprinkle the edges of books. (335)
arming press
A small hand BLOCKING PRESS, at one time used for impressing ARMORIAL BEARINGS on the covers of books, but now used for blocking short runs of edition bindings, as well as in miscellaneous binding work. (203, 278)
armorial bearings
Solid plates of brass, engraved in relief with family heraldic insignia, and used to block insignia on the covers of books belonging to prominent and/ or royal families. Armorial bearings have been seldom used in the decoration of bookbindings since the middle of the 19th century. (128, 262, 347)
armorial bindings
armorial panels
Leather or cloth bindings embossed with armorial seals or plaques, frequently in a panel, or embroidered bindings in which the arms were raised in relief and worked in thread. (69, 342)
art binding
A term sometimes used to describe a book that has been bound by a master craftsman in the "best manner," using only the finest materials available. The term is applied only to books bound by hand and covered in leather or vellum, and usually only to those bindings that are unique or at least distinctive in design. (373)
art canvas
A relatively heavy book cloth, usually impregnated, which may be a single or double WARP and is sometimes lined with tissue paper to prevent penetration of adhesives. It has been used for covering large, heavy books, as well as library bindings. (264)
artificial gold
See: IMITATION GOLD.
artificial grain
A grain pattern embossed or rolled into a leather, usually in an attempt to imitate a superior type of leather. See also: BASIL; GRAINED UP. (335)
artificial leather
See: IMITATION LEATHER.
art linen
A relatively heavy cloth of a generally flat and uneven color, and usually impregnated. When art linens are produced with a design, the patterns are usually florid and ornate. (204)
art paper
1. A good quality paper used by artists and conservators. It has a highly finished, smooth surface produced by supercalendering or by coating. Its principal characteristic is its close formation. In Great Britain, "art paper" is considered to be a body paper or board coated with a mineral substance, such as barium sulfate or china clay, which gives it a smoothness that is suitable for the printing of fine halftones, and the like. In the United States, art paper is generally made from chemical wood pulp, while in Great Britain the best art paper is made from 90 to 95% esparto and 5 to 10% chemical wood pulp. Esparto is good because it is less likely to stretch and has a natural affinity for coating materials, which gives it a superior surface for halftone reproductions. Heavily coated art papers are prone to cracking, flaking, and pulling away of the coating. The binding of books produced on such papers can be difficult because of the tendency of the paper to crack when folded. Cf: IMITATION ART PAPER. 2. A fancy figured paper used for endpapers in edition binding. (17, 58, 182, 287)
art parchment
A thick, heavy, hard-sized paper manufactured from cotton fiber and/or chemical wood pulps. To some extent it has the natural appearance of PARCHMENT. It is used for documents, or in other applications where a heavy paper is required; in the latter half of the 19th century it was used as a cover paper. See also: DOCUMENT PARCHMENT (1). (17)
art vellum
A relatively thin book cloth, which, although impregnated, has only moderately good wearing qualities. It is a smooth cloth with a textured pattern printed on a white base fabric. Art vellums were used extensively for the sides of half- and quarter-bindings. (105, 205)
asbestine
A mineral compound of almost pure fibrous magnesium silicate, which possesses physical characteristics between those of talc and asbestos. It is used as a LOADING (1) agent in paper manufacture, particularly for blotting papers and board. (17)
ash
ash content
The inorganic residue remaining after a sample of paper is burned, driving off combustible and volatile compounds. The "ash content" is defined as the percentage the residue is of the original weight of the sample. (17, 98)
"as is"
See: BIND AS IS.
assembly time
A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the time lapse between the application of an adhesive and the application of heat, pressure, or both. See also: CLOSED ASSEMBLY TIME; OPEN ASSEMBLY TIME. (309)
assiette
A compound consisting of bole, bloodstone, and gelena (lead sulfide, PbS), used to prepare the edges of books for gilding. See also: GLAIR.
A-stage
An initial stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins wherein the resin continues to be soluble and fusible. "A-stage" is characterized by an initial lowering of viscosity. Also called "Resol. ' See also: B-STAGE; C-STAGE. (309)
asterisk
The symbol (*) used to mark a corrected page (CANCEL) supplied to the binder to replace an incorrect leaf (CANCELLAND).
atlas
A volume consisting of maps, with or without descriptive material, which is issued to supplement or accompany a text, or is issued independently. An "atlas" is also defined as a volume of plates, engravings, etc., illustrating any field of knowledge. Atlases are sometimes difficult to bind because of narrow margins, stiff and/or heavy paper, or foldouts.
atlas folio
The largest of the folios, with dimensions of approximately 25 or 26 x 17 inches. See also: ELEPHANT FOLIO.
atlas paper
A large size of drawing paper similar to map paper except that it is usually coated and made in a basis weight that is heavier so as to minimize SHOW THROUGH. Originally, the term referred to a paper suitable for printing maps and atlases; today, however, MAP PAPER is the more commonly used term. (17)
attaching boards
The process of gluing the tapes and spine-lining material to the inside of single boards or between SPLIT BOARDS, or the LACING-IN of the cords through holes drilled or punched in boards. In general, it is the binding process of joining the boards to the text block; it is not to be confused with CASING-IN. In edition and library binding, the term has no meaning other than gluing the boards to the covering material, either by hand or by means of a CASE-MAKING MACHINE. (236, 335)
attapulgite clay
A fibrous claylike material, essentially ((OH2)4 Mg5Si8O20(OH)2 -- 4H2O), rich in magnesium, and used as a filling material in papermaking, usually in coatings for reproduction papers. The clay is also called "fuller's earth," from its ability to remove dirt and grease from wool, a process called "fulling." (17)
aureole
A light or luminous area surrounding the blind impressions of a book cover; it is caused by the leather not being wetted all over, but only on the areas being tooled.
author's binding
A copy of a book to be presented by an author. Such bindings were normally produced in a superior manner; gilt vellum bindings were common in the 16th century, and panelled morocco in the 1 7th and 18th. The term has little meaning today. (69)
automatic clamping
A term used with reference to the clamp of a cutting machine, which descends upon any height pile to be cut and exerts approximately the same clamping pressure for all heights and types of material. (145)
automatic spacing
The BACK GAUGE of a cutting machine that moves forward a pre-determined distance following each cut. It is most effective in cutting long-run, large-sized sheets requiring many cuts. (320)
automatic stitcher-feeder machine
A bookbinding machine that gathers and inserts a number of folded sheets and stitches them through the folds. The sheets are either fed by operators to the carrier saddle at various stations, or are fed automatically. As each folio is carried along the saddle, another is fed over it at each station until the section or book is complete. When the section reaches the end of the machine it is automatically knocked even, saddle stitched and delivered to a receiving trough. (179)
aux petits fers
See: PETITS FERS.
available chlorine
The amount of chlorine (usually about 35%) in the bleaching powder used by papermakers in bleaching paper pulp, that can be relied upon for bleaching purposes. (197)
avaram (bark)
A tree (Cassia auriculata) found in India, the bark of which is one of the most important sources of indigenous tannin of the Indian Subcontinent. The bark usually has a tannin content of approximately 18%, along with about 10% soluble non-tans. Avaram has long been used extensively by Indian tanners, and it is because of it that the extensive Madras export trade in light-tanned or half tanned leathers was established. Although WATTLE (BARK) has largely superseded it in the tannage of cattle hides, avaram is still in great demand for the tannage of goat- and sheepskins, i.e., "East India kips." Avaram is self-bating and penetrates the skin rapidly, producing a pale colored, tough, elastic leather. Used alone, the leather is likely to develop a reddish color when exposed to sunlight; however completion of the tannage with MYRABOLANS prevents this from happening. Avaram is considered to be an ideal tannin for the preparation of half tanned skins or kips that are to be shipped elsewhere for finishing. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
awl
A pointed tool used in bookbinding for piercing holes in paper for fold sewing, side sewing, or for punching holes in boards preparatory to lacing-in. Awls are available with different points and shapes for different uses; a straight, relatively blunt awl is used for punching holes in boards, while a curved and relatively sharp one is used in sewing. (183)
azured tool
A finishing tool with closely spaced parallel lines cut diagonally across its surface—so called from the use of heraldic illustrations of thin horizontal lines to indicate the color blue. The tool appears to have been introduced in France in about 1545. (59)
b.a
An obsolete designation for a pattern in book cloth resembling linen weaving.
babul (bark)
A tree (Acacia arabica) found in India and Africa, the bark of which yields one of the most important indigenous tanning materials in the Northern areas of India and Pakistan. The average tannin content of the bark is about 12%, along with about 8% soluble non-tans. Babul is one of the condensed class of tannins, and, when used alone, tans very slowly and produces a leather that is somewhat harsh and dark in color, but firm and durable. It is usually used along with MYRABOLANS to improve color and reduce other undesirable characteristics resulting from the use of babul alone. In recent years the use of babul bark has declined in favor of WATTLE (BARK). See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
baby calf
A CALFSKIN leather produced from small, lightweight skins of calves that have not been weaned. It has a smooth or fine-boarded grain surface and is free of any artificial surface pattern. The finish is glossy and is produced by ironing, glazing, or plating. Baby calf is fairly tough leather with a dermal network of fine, even texture. See also: VEAL. (61)
back
1. See: SPINE. 2. To shape a ridge or shoulder on the sides of the spine of a text block after sewing. See: BACKING. 3. The main portion of a HIDE (1), obtained by cutting off both sides of the belly and the head. 4. Boards composed of plies of different stock, the side of superior quality being called the "top" and the other side the "back."
back boarding
The process of BOARDING (1) leather with the flesh side in for the sole purpose of softening it.
backbone
SPINE (2) of a book.
back cornering
See illustration The process in bookbinding of cutting away a small triangular piece of the head and tail edges of the boards of a book at the joints. The cut is made at two angles, one to the board edge and the other to the thickness of the board. The amount removed and the angle of the cut are determined by the width of the leather turn-ins and their thickness where they meet the edge of the board. The purpose of back cornering is to relieve the strain on the joints of the book when the covers are opened; otherwise, a strain would occur because of the additional thickness of the leather caused by the turn-ins. Back cornering also facilitates setting and shaping the headcaps. Back cornering was at first done on the inside of the boards, allowing for "laced-in" headband cores or tabs. By the late Middle Ages, back cornering was a standard procedure for books with folded-down or stubbed cores. The modern method of cornering on the outside surfaces of the boards facilitates the current method of headcapping and probably stems from the 18th century. (237, 335)
back cover
See: LOWER COVER. 2. The outside surface of the lower cover of a publication, such as a periodical issue. The term is used here with reference to publications that contain printed or illustrative matter on the outside of the cover.
backed
1. A book that has had its spine shaped to create the shoulders to receive the boards. See: BACKING. 2. A damaged leaf of a book, either text or plate, that has been "laid down on" or adhered to silk, paper, linen, plastic film, adhesive film, etc., for reinforcement. See also: NYLON. 3. See: REBACKED.
back edge
The left-hand or gutter of a RECTO (1), corresponding to the right-hand edge of a VERSO (1). The opposite edge is the back edge of publications that read from right to left.
backed-filled finish
A type of finish used on cotton cloth. The filling material is applied to the "back" side of the cloth to supply the required body and finish, and does not appear on the "top" or exposed side. (269)
backer
backing machine
A hand- or power-operated machine used for BACKING books. The backer stems from the days when a book was rounded by hand and then placed in the backer to quickly form the shoulders for the boards. Today, in both edition and library binding, the most common method is to round and back books in two consecutive operations in a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. Unusually large books, which will not fit in a machine, are generally backed by hand or in a hand-operated backer. See also: JOB BACKER. (256, 264)
back folds
The folds of the sections of a book, through which they are sewn. or otherwise fastened to one another. In context, they are sometimes referred to simply as folds. See also: SECTION (1). (237)
back gauge
A movable device on a cutting machine against which the pile of paper or board is placed when measuring the line at which the material is to be cut.
back gluing machine
An edition binding machine used to glue up the spines of books and automatically convey them along a drying section which quickly sets and hardens the glue. The maximum size book that can usually be processed in such a machine is 12 by 9 inches, and the minimum 3 by 2 inches, with a thickness up to 2 1/2 inches. A fully automatic back gluing machine can process up to 2,400 books an hour. See also: TRIPLE LINER AND HEADBANDING MACHINE. (343)
backing
See illustration The process of shaping a ridge or shoulder on each side of the spine of a text block prior to the application of the spine lining material. The backs of the sewn sections or leaves are bent over from the center to the left and right until shoulders are formed against which the boards will fit. The dimension of the shoulders is determined by the thickness of the boards to be used, which, in turn, is determined by the size and bulk of the book. In addition to providing for the boards, backing also:1) allows for the swell of the spine caused by the thread used in sewing, or by excessive guarding; 2) helps maintain the round of the book by the fact that each leaf from the center outward is folded over the leaf next to it so that it cannot work its way forward and thus cause the hook to cave in (See: START); 3) helps impart more flexibility to the book by creating a slight crease in each leaf near the spine, to the extent that backing has something of a scoring effect which makes the book easier to open and facilitates turning the leaves (See: SCORE); and 4) makes a better joint for the cover, one which opens easier and is stronger, since the point of strain during opening is spread over a strip of the covering material, e.g., a FRENCH JOINT. Furthermore, the angle of conformation of the spine caused by backing probably provides for better vertical standing support of the text block. Backing may be accomplished by hand with the use of a BACKING HAMMER or, in the case of edition and library binding, by means of a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. In some cases e.g., very large books, backing may be done in a BACKER as a separate operation. Some authorities consider the backing of a book to be the most important and difficult of all the processes in the craft of hand bookbinding, and poor or inadequate backing is certainly one of the major sources of problems in the processes of edition and library bookbinding. Although books dating from at least as early as the beginning of the second half of the 15th century were often rounded, backing for the purpose of forming shoulders seems not to have been an established procedure before 1500, or perhaps somewhat later. It is uncertain when bookbinders discovered that rounding and backing was a superior bookbinding technique. The swell caused by sewing sometimes causes books to assume a slight round with no effort on the part of the bookbinder, and, over a long period of time, the pressure of the boards perhaps even results in the effect of backing. (209, 236, 335, 339)
backing boards
The boards used in hand binding to assist in BACKING a book. Backing boards are generally made of a very hard wood and are frequently faced with strips of metal. The upper edge of the board is beveled at an angle of approximately 80°, over which the outer sections or leaves on both sides of the text block are bent. The board is also thicker at this edge than at the lower, so that when it is placed on the side of the text block near the spine and secured in the LYING PRESS, the force of the press is concentrated nearest the spine. (92, 183, 335)
backing flannel
A heavy cloth material used at times to line the spines of larger books. A more common technique today is to use two linings, usually a first lining of cloth over which is applied a paper lining See also: SPINE LINING FABRIC. (27, 196)
backing hammer
A heavy iron hammer with a short handle, heavy face, and wedge-shaped head, used in rounding and backing books. It is sometimes referred to as a "collet hammer" or "bumping hammer" See also: BACKING; ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. (335)
backing iron
See: BACK-MOLDING IRON.
backing paper
See: INLAY (1); SPINE LINING PAPER.
backing press
A vertically oriented press with steel plates brought together by means of a single screw. The top edge of each plate is beveled to an angle of approximately 80°, so that when the plates are closed on the text block, the press serves the same function as BACKING BOARDS. (25)
back lining
See: SPINE LINING.
back margin
The INNER MARGIN, or the margin between the point where the sections or leaves are joined and the edge of the print. In books that read from left to right it is the left-hand margin of a printed recto, corresponding to the right-hand margin of the verso. Also called "gutter margin." (102)
back mark
The disfiguring ridge or "mark" in a sheet of paper which has been dried on a pole or line. Also called "pole mark," or "stick mark."
back-molding iron
See illustration An implement, usually made of iron, approximately 20 inches long, 6 inches wide and 2 1/2 inches thick, and used in forming the millboard for the SPRING-BACK of a book. The iron is made with several grooves of various widths on both sides. (264)
back saw
A short, fine-toothed hand saw stiffened by means of a metal rib along its back edge. It is used to saw-in the kettle kerfs and the grooves for sawn-in cords. Although almost any small saw will suffice in lieu of the back saw, it has the advantages of being short, stiff and easy to hold. It must be very sharp to avoid tearing the paper. Also called "tenon saw."
backstrip
1. A term used incorrectly with reference to the SPINE of a book. See also: REBACKED. 2. See: GUARD (1). 3. See: INLAY (1).
back to fore edge
The distance from the spine to the fore edge of a book. The term is probably used mainly to indicate that a book is of uniform thickness across its width. i.e., that the boards are parallel. The implication is that there has been proper compensation for any swelling of the spine caused by sewing or excessive guarding. See also: BACKING; CONVEX COVERS. (335)
bacterial resistance
The resistance of a material to the growth of bacteria and/ or mold. This property represents one of the more significant advantages of resinous adhesives over the conventional adhesives. (258)
bactericide
A material used in small concentrations, e.g., 0.1% by weight of the material being treated, to kill, or inhibit the growth of, bacteria that may occur in liquid or solid adhesives, or may attack carbohydrate or proteinaceous adhesive films. (222)
Badier, Florimond
fl 1645-1660
A Parisian bookbinder, apprenticed to Jean Thomas in 1630, who became a master bookbinder in 1645. His name is associated with the art of POINTILLÉ (1) and sumptuous doublures. Badier also used a distinctive finishing stamp cut in the shape of a man's head. Only three signed bindings of his are known; many bindings attributed to him may be the work of imitators. At one time, Badier was considered by some authorities to be the legendary LE GASCON; this was largely because of his pointillé style. (73, 347)
bagasse pulp
A paper pulp obtained from the crushed stalks of sugar cane (usually considered to be Saccharum officinarum), following the extraction of the juices. The pulp is prepared for use by mechanical disintegration in water, either with or without chemical treatment. The pulp produced is coarse. bulky, and of low strength, and is used principally in the manufacture of boards. (72)
bag binding
An additional protective covering provided a book. It is usually made of leather. See also: GIRDLE BOOK. (104)
Bagguley, Thomas
An English bookbinder, of Newcastle under Lyme, who, in the late 19th century, devised a method of tooling vellum and similar materials in permanent colors. Bagguley limited his technique to vellum, as he considered leather to be too lacking in purity of color to offer a satisfactory ground for unrestricted color decoration. Because of the delicate nature of his work, he further restricted his technique to vellum doublures. See also: SUTHERLAND DECORATION. (94)
ball tool
A small finishing tool cut in the shape of a ball.
bamboo
A giant grass of the tribe Bambusseae, located in the tropical areas of the Eastern Hemisphere, and cultivated successfully in some parts of the southern United States. The fibers are not unlike those of straw in many aspects. Bamboo fibers have an average length of 2.4mm., which puts them between the softwood and hardwood fibers. It is used extensively in India for the manufacture of all grades of chemical pulp and paper. Paper made from it is relatively soft and bulky, with a high tearing resistance but relatively low burst and tensile strength. Although writing and printing papers are produced from 100% bamboo pulp, superior results are realized when the bamboo is blended with other pulps that increase burst and tensile strength. Bamboo is also the traditional material used in making molds and other devices used in the manufacture of handmade paper. (17, 143)
band board
A wooden block about 9 by 12 inches, 6 inches thick at the head and 5 at the foot, on which headbanders in library binderies used to lay their zinc boards with dampened headbands, prior to attaching them to the text blocks. (256).
band driver
A blunt, chisel-shaped tool, usually made of wood, and used in hand binding to attain uniformity and also to correct any irregularities of the bands on which the book is sewn. See also: BAND NIPPERS. (94, 261)
banding
See: BANDS (2).
band nippers
See illustration Pincers which have broad, flat jaws, used for straightening the bands of a book sewn on raised cords, and also for nipping up the leather during covering. The better nippers are nickleplated or made of stainless steel to avoid discoloring the leather, and are equipped with a spring to keep the jaws open when in use. (161)
band pallet
A type of PALLET (1) used to impress a complete design on the spine of a book between the raised bands. Sometimes called a "butterstamp." (97)
band pattern
A device, generally made of brass, with holes drilled indicating the position of the bands of books to be sewn on raised cords. (264)
bands
See illustration 1. The cords or thongs on which the sections of books are sewn. They may be raised for FLEXIBLE SEWING, sawn-in for RECESSED-CORD sewing, or FLEXIBLE NOT TO SHOW. Early bands (or thongs, as they were originally called) were made of leather, which was not very durable, or tawed skin, which was very durable. Leather thongs began to be replaced by cords during the latter years of the 16th century. Hemp and linen cords are commonly used today. Sewing on raised bands came into use in England sometime between the 12th and 13th centuries, although the technique had been introduced into northern Europe centuries earlier. The first raised band sewing was on double bands, ranging in number from two to five. The bands were positioned so that there was a greater space between the bands themselves than between the top and bottom bands and the head and tail of the book. Single bands began to replace double ones and, by the mid-16th century, had become predominant in the more economical styles of binding. 2. Strips of reinforcing material (usually leather) which extend across the spine, or spring-back, and onto the sides of a book, usually a stationery binding. The bands may be placed on the boards before covering, in which case they are called "underbands," or over the covering material, where they are known as "overbands." Bands are used to strengthen large blankbooks in the area of the joints, and to provide additional leather at areas of heavy surface abrasion. They also protect, to some extent, the lettering on the spine of the book. When overbands are used, they are generally decorated in some manner, usually in the design of their lacing or riveting; this step is needed because adhesive alone will not keep the overbands attached to the book. In the case of underbands, the decoration of the covering leather is often concentrated around the area of the bands. The size and position of the bands, both over and under, are based on definite proportions of the cover of the book. Bands may be single, double, or double straight. When single bands are used, the cover is divided into 19 equal parts. Each band is 3/19 the length of the cover, and there are 3/19 the cover length between the bands. The top and bottom bands are each 2/19 from the head and tail edges of the cover, respectively. All three bands extend into the cover 2/5 of its width. Double bands, in addition to providing additional strength across the spine, also provide an additional thickness of leather along the edges of the boards. These bands are more complicated than single bands, as the bands at head and tail are equal to 5/19 of the length of the cover, with 2 of the 5/19 bands extending the full width of the cover, while the other 3/19 extend only the customary 2/5. The center band also extends 2/5 the width. With double band there is no space between the bands and the head and tail of the boards. A variation of the double band is the double straight. In this technique, the length of the cover is divided into five equal segments. Each band is 1/5 the length of the cover. The head and tail bands extend the full width of the cover, while the middle one extends the customary 2/5. Bands were also used to some extent in limp vellum binding, in which case the bands were sewn through the sections of the book. The use of bands as a technique for strengthening bindings has been practiced since at least the 14th century. At one time they were commonly referred to as "Russia bands" because of the use of RUSSIA LEATHER in making them. 3. Lines in gold or in blind impressed by means of a pallet across the spine of a book sewn on recessed cords in the same positions as would be occupied by the raised bands used in flexible sewing. 4. False bands attached to a HOLLOW BACK book or a TIGHT BACK book sewn on recessed cords, in imitation of flexible sewing. 5. The strips of brass attached to the tail edges of the covers of large blankbooks, for the purpose of protecting the leather covering from wear. 6. A form of decoration consisting of wide parallel lines with ornaments impressed between them. (83, 123, 152, 236, 241, 256, 264, 343)
bands frayed
The cords (bands) of a book which have been separated (frayed out) into individual threads. The frayed out cords, which extend out from the text block 1 to 2 1/2 inches, are glued between split boards, and are frayed out so as to avoid bulging of the boards. Cf: LACING-IN. (25)
bandstick
See illustration 1. A hard, smooth length of wood, frequently beechwood, used in pressing and smoothing the leather over the bands on the spine. The bandstick may consist of a narrow strip having a smooth sharpened edge on one side, in which case it is used to work one side of a band at a time, or it may be grooved so that the stick fits over the band. The latter type may have graduated grooves on both sides to accommodate bands of varying widths. 2. A tapering length of hard, smooth wood, used in pressing and smoothing the leather on the spine between the raised bands. Also called "rubbing-up stick." (232, 264)
barium carbonate
A white compound (BaCO3), insoluble in water. The use of BARIUM HYDROXIDE in the deacidification of paper results in the formation of barium carbonate as the alkaline reserve in the paper, due to the action of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the barium hydroxide.
barium hydroxide
A white, toxic alkali (Ba(OH)2), formed by the reaction of barium monoxide with water, or by the action of sodium hydroxide on soluble barium salts. It is one of the agents used in the non-aqueous deacidification of paper.
barium sulfate
A white, soluble, heavy compound (BaSO4), obtained either from the natural mineral barytes, or by chemical treatment of barium with sulfuric acid, and used both as a filler and coating pigment in paper manufacture, particularly photographic papers. It is used alone or in combination with other pigments. It has good affinity for ink, a bright color, and good opacity. It does not, however, produce a high finish. It is also used to form the pigment LITHOPONE. The artificial compound is also known as "blanc fixe." (72)
bark
1. The outer surfaces of trees and other woody plants. The inner side of the bark of certain trees, e.g., birch, has been used in the past as a surface for writing. Bark books were rather common in Central Asia and the Far East until comparatively recent times. Bark is vulnerable to dampness and curling in climates of high relative humidity and to cracking in dry areas. 2. See: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (102)
barkometer
An instrument used to measure the weight of a vegetable tannin liquor per unit volume.
bark skiver
A vegetable (oak bark) tanned sheepskin, light tan in color, and used extensively in the 19th century as a covering material for law books. It is not considered to be either permanent or durable. See also: LAW SHEEP.
bark tanned
A general term used to indicate a leather that has been vegetable tanned mainly by means of tannins derived from the bark of trees as distinguished from mixed tannages. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.
barm skin
The name given a leather apron sometimes worn by bookbinders.
barrier sheet
A leaf inserted in a book to prevent the transfer of ink (and possibly acid substances) from a plate or illustration to a facing page, as well at times to elucidate the plate or illustration it accompanies. The sheet may be a highly sized paper, so called acid-free paper, or, more often, glassine paper. It may be loose in the book, sewn in with the binding, or, in the usual case, tipped to the leaf it protects. Barrier sheets are frequently made of an inferior quality of paper, one which will eventually develop acidity that can in turn be transferred to the facing text leaves, weakening them. For this reason, they should be removed, or, if they bear letterpress and therefore must be retained, deacidified and buffered, strengthened (if necessary), and reinserted in the volume. See also: ACID MIGRATION. (173)
bar roll
A ROLL (1) cut with a series of parallel raised lines at right angles to its sides.
Barrow, William J.
1904-1967
An American document restorer and former director of the W. J. Barrow Research Laboratory, located in Richmond, Virginia, at one time considered by many authorities to be the leading independent scientific center for research into paper and the deterioration of paper. Barrow developed a process for laminating brittle documents between tissue and cellulose acetate film, as well as a highly effective means of deacidifying paper. He demonstrated the actual facts of paper stability over the past four centuries and developed a durable paper having a high degree of permanence. Barrow was also involved in other investigations connected with paper and ink for a period of more than 30 years, and was probably the most important single contributor to the knowledge of methods of achieving permanence and durability of archival materials. The Barrow laboratory ceased operations in 1977. See also: DEACIDIFICATION; LAMINATION. (7)
Bartlett, Roger
c 1633-1712
An English bookbinder who was apprenticed to Samuel Satterthwaite in 1647, and was set up in his own business in London in 1654. He subsequently left London and set up business in Oxford some time after the great fire of 1666 and began producing the excellent gold-tooled presentation books for which he is well known. His bindings include certain distinctive features, including rows of floral volutes along cottage roofs, as well as swags hanging from the eves. Bartlett retired to his birthplace (Watlington in Oxfordshire) in 1711 or 1712, apparently having sold his bindery. The latest important binding executed by Bartlett is dated 1685, but records indicate that he continued binding thereafter. (50, 205, 253)
barytes
See: BARIUM SULFATE.
base
1. See: ALKALI. 2. A metal block on which a die or electro for stamping or embossing is mounted. 3. A prepared bed in a blocking press over which cases are fed, and which provides a solid foundation for producing sharp impressions.
base coat
The first of a multiple system of coatings. The base coat is frequently a relatively inexpensive filling material designed to prevent excessive penetration of subsequent and often more expensive coatings.
base fabric
In general, the basic cloth used for covering books, regardless of the final form it may take, i.e., coated, impregnated, or filled. Base cloths are usually of cotton, thoroughly cleaned, free from waste, evenly woven, with the warp yarns woven in pairs. (209)
basic dyes
A class of dyes, usually synthetic, that act as bases, and which are actually ANILINE DYES. Their color base is not water soluble but can be made so by converting the base into a salt. The basic dyes, while possessing great tinctorial strength and brightness, are not generally light-fast; therefore their use in the dyeing of archival materials is largely restricted to those materials not requiring this characteristic. Basic dyes were at one time used extensively in dyeing leather, mainly because they are capable of combining directly with vegetable-tanned leather without the use of a mordant. See also: DYE, (17, 62, 72)
basic size
The sheet size of paper, determined by trade custom, as that agreed upon for calculating the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper. Initially it was the size which could be printed, folded and trimmed with the greatest economy. Some of the specifications for basic sizes in use in the United States are: Type of paper Size (in inches) Bible 25 X 38 Blanks 22 X 38 Blotting 19 X 24 Bond 17 X 22 Book 25 X 38 Cover 20 X 26 Glassine 24 X 36 Gummed 25 X 38 Index 25 1/2 X 30 1/2 Ledger 17 X 22 Manifold 17 X 22 Manuscript 18 X 31 Mimeograph 17 X 22 Newsprint 24 X 36 Offset 25 X 38 Onionskin 17 X 22 Opaque 25 X 38 Poster 24 X 36 Tag 22 1/2 X 28 1/2 or 24 X 36 Text 25 X 38 Tissues 24 X 36 Vellum bristol 22 1/2 X 28 1/2 Writing 17 X 22 All are based on a ream of 500 sheets. (17, 316, 324)
basil
A vegetable-tanned, sheep- or lamb-skin, producing a soft, smooth leather but with only moderately good wearing qualities. Its smooth surface lends itself well to graining in imitation of other skins, such as goat. There are several types of basil, including E.I. (East India), N. Z. (New Zealand) and Aus. (Australia), all of which are generally tanned with native or mimosa bark. Crust basils are tanned loose in pits and sold dry as taken from the drying sheds; strained basils are tanned as crust, but wet down, set out with a slicker, stretched and allowed to dry; tawed basils are sheepskins dressed with alum and salt and finished in a white or nut brown color; and organ basils are also tawed but with the salt removed. Diced basils are skins which have been dyed red, glazed, and embossed with a diced cross line. Because of their relatively poor wearing characteristics, basils are not often used today in bookbinding, although in the first half of the 20th century they were employed fairly extensively in binding cheaper blankbooks, and the like. (61, 69, 343)
basis weight
The actual weight of a ream of paper (normally 500 sheets, but at times 480 or 516), cut to its BASIC SIZE. The standard, or basic, size ream varies with different grades of paper. Some papers and boards are produced to a specified caliper (thickness), rather than to a specific weight; an example of this is heavy cover paper. The United States Government Printing Office uses a unit of 1,000 sheets, which is also used in the M.M. SYSTEM. In most foreign countries, as well as in certain domestic test procedures, the standard size is a square meter, with the weight being expressed in grams per square meter. The basis weight of board is commonly expressed in pounds per 1,000 square feet. Book paper basis weights are based on the 25 by 38 inch sheet size, while cover paper weights are calculated on a size of 20 by 26 inches. (17, 72, 334)
basket cloth
A fancy weave of cloth, usually a better grade of buckram with a pattern similar to the wicker work in baskets. In the first decades of the 20th century it was used to some extent in edition binding. (256, 264)
bast fibers
Strong woody fibers obtained from both the phloem and pericycle of various plants, and used in the manufacture of paper. Bast fibers, which include those of hemp, jute, mitsumata, and ramie, among others, are generally thinner than cotton fibers but their tubes have thicker walls than does cotton. Bast fibers are also generally stiffer and stronger than cotton fibers. (17, 42, 198)
bathbrick
Powdered brick used in dusting the GOLD CUSHION before laying on the GOLD LEAF for cutting. Its purpose is to prevent the leaf from sticking to the cushion. (130, 335)
batik
A cloth consisting of a dyed fabric of which parts which are not intended to be colored are protected by wax, which is later removed. Batik is used for covering books, particularly in the area of Indonesia where the technique originated, and also as a novelty in other areas. (332)
bating
A process which is usually defined as "reducing" or "removing." The basic purposes of DELIMING and bating are to remove calcium hydroxide (or other alkali) from the skin, to lower pH, and, of great importance, to treat the skin substance with proteolytic enzymes so as to obtain desired grain appearance in the finished leather. Bating also serves to impart softness, stretch, and flexibility to the leather, while at the same time providing the basis for a clean, smooth grain by loosening scud consisting of hair roots, pigment materials and grease. It also eliminates all traces of the firm, plumped, and swollen state of the skin induced by the alkaline unhairing liquors by bringing the skin into a soft, fallen condition. Today bating is employed mainly in tanning light leathers, such as those used in bookbinding, where drape, flexibility, and softness of handle are of primary importance. The origin of bating is somewhat obscure but probably dates back to the time when LIMING was not a common practice. It may have been originated by a tanner who noticed that skins badly soiled with dung often produced a softer, stretchier, silkier leather. As recently as the early years of the present century, the process of bating consisted of immersing the delimed skins in water at a temperature of 35-40° C., and then adding a liquid paste of pigeon or hen dung. The skins were run in this liquor until they acquired a particularly soft, flaccid and silky handle. The finished leather was found to have a very smooth, clean flat, flexible grain and was very soft and stretchy. Considerable variations in time, temperature and quantities were used for various types of leather. The effect of bating was produced by enzymes, which, under appropriate conditions of temperature and pH, are capable of dissolving and digesting some of the protein constituents of the skin. In a properly controlled process they are given only sufficient time for further removal of undesirable interfibrillary proteins, or to modify or weaken those fiber structures which, by binding the collagen fibers tightly together, would cause the grain to be wrinkled and the resultant leather to have no stretch. Today bating is accomplished by the the use of enzymes extracted from animal tissue, e.g., the pancreas of swine or sheep, or from microorganisms such as molds and bacteria, called respectively pancreatic and bacterial bates. (248, 275, 291, 306, 363)
batwing skiver
A bookbinder's expression for the thinnest SKIVER produced. It is made from the flesh split of sheepskin, and was at one time used for linings and title labels for law and similar books. (91, 274)
Baumé
Baumé hydrometer
A hydrometer for measuring the density of liquid and gum solutions, named after its inventor, Antoine Baumé. The Baumé scale is either of two arbitrary hydrometer scales, one for liquids heavier than water and the other for liquids lighter than water, that indicate specific gravity in degrees. The calculation (in the United States) for liquids heavier than water is: 60° 145 Specific gravity at --- F = --- 60° 145 -° Baumé and for liquids lighter than water: 60° 140 Specific gravity at --- F = --- 60° 130 +° Baumé Slightly different conversions are used in other countries or in specific industries. (179, 362)
bead
1. An old American term for HEADBAND. 2. A small twist formed when twisting the silk or cotton in headbanding. 3. A fore-edge clasp made of cat gut and beads, used to keep vellum bindings tightly closed. See also: CLASPS. (83, 250, 261)
beamhouse operations
The processes in leather manufacture that take place following curing and preceding the actual tannage of the skin. These processes include some or all of the following: SOAKING (1), LIMING, UNHAIRING, SCUDDING, FLESHING, DELIMING, BATING (or PUERING), DRENCHING, and PICKLING, not necessarily always in the order given. The skin may also be split before tanning. The principal objectives of beamhouse operations are to rid the stock of substances not wanted in the finished leather, notably the class of proteins known as keratin, and to put the skins into the proper chemical and physical condition for subsequent processing. To produce satisfactory leather, beamhouse operations must be carried out in such a manner that no damage is done to the fibrous (collagen) part of the skin that is converted into leather, nor to its internal structure. The term derives from the "beam," a convex wooden slab sloping upward from the floor, over which the raw stock is placed for trimming, fleshing, unhairing, or scudding by hand. (248, 363)
beater
A machine used in papermaking. It consists essentially of a tank, usually provided with a partition or "mid-feather," that contains a heavy roll designed to revolve against a bedplate. Both roll and bedplate can be fitted with horizontal metal bars set on edge. In operation, the pulp material in a water slurry circulates between the roll and bedplate and is rubbed, cut, macerated, and separated into a fibrous mass for further processing into paper. Sometimes fillers, loadings, dyes, etc., are added to the stock in the beater. Some authorities contend that the beater, introduced in 1670, was partially responsible for the decline in quality of paper, as miniscule iron particles, breaking away from the sides or working parts of the machine, entered the paper and caused it to deteriorate. See also: REFINER. (17, 58)
beater sized
A paper which has been sized by means of materials added to the BEATER, or if not the beater, to the pulp before sheet formation, as contrasted to paper that has been SURFACE SIZED, or TUB SIZED. (17)
beating
1. A hand operation of flattening the leaves or sections of a book before sewing, the purpose of which is to compress or, in the process of rebinding, to remove the backing shoulders. See: KNOCKING OUT THE GROOVE. Books are seldom beaten today. See: BUNDLING (1); NIPPING (1); SMASHING. 2. The process of swelling and separating the fibers and fibrils of rags, wood pulp, etc., either batchwise or in a BEATER, or by passage through a REFINER. (261, 350)
beating hammer
A heavy, short-handled hammer, with a bell-shaped face, used in beating the leaves and sections of a book so as to flatten and compress them. Such hammers generally weigh 10 to 14 pounds, and sometimes even up to 16 pounds. The introduction of the ROLLING MACHINE (1827) made the beating hammer virtually obsolete. (172, 236)
beating stone
A marble or litho stone, or a flat plate of iron, set in a frame filled with sand, on which the leaves or sections of books are beaten. (261)
bed
The base of a standing (or similar) press, on which books are placed and toward which the PLATEN descends.
Bedford, Francis
1800-1884
An English bookbinder whose work was considered to be unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries. Bedford worked for Charles Lewis until the latter's death in 1836, and then with John Clarke until 1850 when he started his own business. Bedford copied earlier Venetian bindings, with twisted or Saracenic ornaments, as well as later Veneto-Lyonese bindings common in England during the reign of Elizabeth 1. He also produced many imitations of the mosaics of ANTOINE MICHEL PADELOUP. (347)
Bedford style
Hand-stained bindings produced from a leather sometimes referred to as "fair calf" (a bark tanned calfskin), washed over frequently with a weak solution of potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and exposed to light. The staining process took as long as 6 months. In addition to the potassium carbonate, copperas (ferrous sulfate—FeSO4), also known as "green vitroil," was used to produce a particular effect. The carbonate gave a warm brown-toned sprinkle, the sulfate gave a gray, and the two together gave a black. Cf: ETRUSCAN CALF. (94, 154, 236, 347)
beeswax
A wax obtained from the hives of bees, i.e., an animal wax. Beeswax is a complex substance secreted by the worker bees for the purpose of constructing honeycombs. The wax is obtained by melting the honeycomb structure, and then filtering the wax before it is allowed to set. Beeswax usually contains a number of mineral wax adulterants. The wax, which is often bleached by shredding it into thin flakes and setting it out in the sun, has a softening range of 62-66° C. It is used: 1) to lubricate the thread used in sewing books by hand; 2) with LANOLIN and other substances for LEATHER DRESSINGS. In the latter use it is considered valuable by some conservationists because, as it is harder than most other waxes, it supplies body to the dressing at a reasonably low softening temperature, and also provides a polished or glossy finish which some find desirable; its use, however, as well as that of any wax on leather, is considered by a number of authorities to be detrimental to the permanence of leather; 3) as a base for the colors used in MARBLING; and 4) to provide a suitable surface for burnishing the gilt edges of books, although it is generally considered to be inferior to CARNAUBA WAX in this application, as carnauba is less likely to streak. (29, 291, 335)
beeswing
See: HIDE BUFFING.
Belgian hare
A long-legged breed of rabbit found in Belgium, the hind leg of which was the traditional implement used by gold beaters to apply finely powered gypsum (BRIME) to the goldbeater's skins. This was done to eliminate as much roughness as possible to allow the gold to expand freely and evenly over the skin. (29)
belly
The extreme left or right side of a complete hide, removed by cutting the hide along a line parallel to the spine and at such a distance from it as to remove approximately 23% of the total area of the hide for the two bellies. The belly includes the front and hind shank. The line of cutting is determined more accurately for any individual hide by noting the change in feel from the denser structure of the crop to the looser structure of the belly. (61, 363)
belly grain
The tanned, outer grain side split from a BELLY.
benched
An obsolete term referring to a book prepared for sewing or some other forwarding operation. It was also applied to the process of flattening the backing ridge of a section. See: KNOCKING OUT THE GROOVE. (164, 256)
bench knife
Two blades, the upper of which is curved and fitted with a handle, while the lower is drilled and countersunk so that it can be bolted to the bench. Bench knives are made in various sizes to cut from 16 to 42 inches. They are useful for cutting lightweight board, but are not as heavy or efficient as the BOARD CUTTER. (66)
bench sewing
An obsolete term applied to sewing a book through the folds, the significance being that the sewing was done on a SEWING FRAME, or bench.
Bentonite
A claylike mineral consisting largely of montmorillonite, and characterized by its high absorptive power and active colloidal properties. It is usually dark, dull, and powdery, but waxy on freshly cut surfaces. Its color varies from yellowish-green to nearly black. Bentonites are products of the change of volcanic ash, and are characterized by an alkaline oxide and alkaline earth content of 5 to 11. They are used as a filler in paper, for deinking paper pulp, for decreasing pitch problems in papermaking, and the like. The name derives from its discovery in Benton, Wyoming. (17)
benzene
A colorless, aromatic hydrocarbon (C6H6), usually obtained by the carbonization of coal, or from petroleum fractions by means of catalytic dehydrogenation. It is used to remove excess glair or grease from leather bindings. Although used extensively in the past. it is seldom used today because of its high flammability and extremely toxic nature. It is not to be confused with benzine (also used for the same purposes), which is a petroleum product obtained by distillation.
bergamot
A pear-shaped fruit (Citris bergania), the rind of which yields a pungent oil, used at one time as a preservative for paste. (371)
beta cellulose
That part of a cellulosic material which will dissolve in an alkaline solution under the conditions of th ALPHA CELLULOSE test, but which will reprecipitate if the alkaline solution is acidified. See also: GAMMA CELLULOSE (17)
between bands
The spaces on the spine of a book between the raised bands, either the ones on which the book is sewn or the false bands attached to give the outward appearance of genuine bands. For purposes of decoration, the spaces are referred to as panels. (94)
bevel
1. The angle of the bevel of BEVELED BOARDS. 2. The angle of cut of the edges of a panel or of an INLAY (4) or ONLAY.
beveled boards
beveled edges
The boards of a book, and especially the large, thick boards of heavy books. which have been cut or sanded on the outside or inside edge along the head, tail, and fore edge. The purpose of beveling is to remove the clumsy effect of thick boards and create a pleasing, tactile quality. The outside edges of boards usually were square until the 13th century; after that time, they were often beveled, sometimes steeply, or, in the case of decorated bindings, on a more gentle slope. The inside edges were also frequently beveled during the 15th century, particularly in Germany. When the outer edges of boards are beveled the edge along the spine is also often beveled on the inside, so that it follows the swelling of the spine. (58, 236)
bhabar
See: SABAI GRASS.
bibelot
An unusually small book. See also: MINIATURE BOOK.
Bible paper
A very lightweight, highly opaque paper, used primarily for low bulk books, such as Bibles, dictionaries, etc. Its basis weight generally ranges from 14 to 30 pounds (25 X 38—500). Bible paper of a basis weight of 20 pounds bulks up to 1,100 sheets per inch. The paper is generally produced from bleached chemical wood pulps, often with the addition of mixes of linen and/or cotton fiber, along with rag pulps, flax, and the like. Bible paper is heavily loaded with titanium oxide or other high grade pigments to improve opacity. Other important characteristics, other than printability, include strength, good folding endurance, and permanence. The term "Bible paper" is sometimes used with reference to any book paper having a basis weight of 30 pounds or less. See also: INDIA PAPER. (17, 58, 365)
Bible style
A style of binding at one time applied to all flexible, round-cornered, leather bookbindings. See also: YAPP STYLE. (256)
bibliogenesis
Of or relating to the production of books.
bibliogony
Of or relating to the production of books. Also called "bibliogenesis."
bibliology
The scientific description of books from the earliest times to the present, including all of the materials and processes involved in their production.
bibliopedist
The craftsman or worker who binds books; a bookbinder. The term is most appropriately applied to one who binds books by hand.
bibliopegic
Of or relating to the binding of books.
bibliopegistic
Of, or relating to, a bookbinder, especially one who binds books by hand.
bibliopegy
The art or craft of binding books. The term is more appropriately applied to the craft of binding books by hand.
bid
A written, usually legally binding, offer of a bookbinder, generally the owner of a bindery, but sometimes an individual bookbinder, to bind the books of another for a certain price, either by the individual book or by lot. A bid may be negotiated in any of several manners, usually according to the wishes of the customer. The binder may quote a flat price for all materials submitted for binding, regardless of style or format; he may quote two prices, one for serial publications or serial-format materials and another price, usually lower, for monographs and similar materials; he may bid on all work according to the height of the trimmed and cased work, e.g., up to and including 8 inches, over 8 inches and including 10 inches, etc., usually with an additional charge for extra thickness, e.g., greater than 2 1/2 inches; he may quote a flat rate for materials according to type, i.e., textbooks, fiction, reference books, theses, etc.; or, he may quote according to both height and format, e.g., 8, 10, 12 inches, etc., serials, 8, 10, 12 inches, etc., monographs, and so on. A bid may also include a stipulation (and a quote) of extra charges, as for example, hand sewing, pockets, stubbing, scoring, guarding, etc. In extra (hand) binding, on the other hand, the binder will generally quote an estimated price for the individual book, or for a specified group of books, with the understanding that the final price (which to a great degree will depend on the amount of time spent on each book) may be higher or lower. Assuming there is no decrease in the quality of the binding provided, and that the binder adheres faithfully to the specifications, the advantage of a bid situation is that the library may enjoy lower prices for its binding. The disadvantages, however, probably outweigh any monetary saving. Bookbinding, whether by a company or an individual, is essentially a service and not a commodity, and a successful binding program, i.e., one that is designed to preserve a collection over the long run, depends more on mutual cooperation and recognition as to the purpose of the library, as well as what the binder can and cannot do, than on any possible savings resulting from a low bid.
bight
The length of a single stitch in a machine-sewn book.
bind
See: BIND ALL; BIND AS IS; BIND FROM SHEETS; BIND IN; BOOKBINDING.
bind all
An instruction to the binder to bind a volume, usually a serial publication, with title page, index, advertisements, or any other material attached.
bind "as is"
An instruction to the binder to bind material in the order, or in the condition, in which it is received from the library, regardless of any seeming imperfections, e.g., a missing issue of a serial, a missing title leaf, etc.
binder
1. One who binds a book; a bibliopegist, or bookbinder. 2. A looseleaf binder (or notebook). 3. A material used to cause other materials to bond, or adhere, or, in papermaking, to cause fibers to bond, coatings to adhere, etc. 4. An adhesive substance, usually of liquid or molten form, used to create adhesion between aggregates, globules, etc. It is distinguished from an ADHESIVE in that it performs an internal adhesive function rather than a surface adhesive function. (17, 142, 309)
binder's block
See: BINDER'S BRASS.
binder's board
The wood, pasted paper, single- or multiple-ply sheets, or other base stock, for the covers of any bound or cased book, i.e., any book in hard covers. Boards, in one form or another, have been used to cover and thereby protect the leaves of codices since the earliest times of bookbinding. Although PASTEBOARD (1) was used very early in the Near East, in Europe, until about 1500, boards were nearly always made of wood (usually oak), hence the name. These wooden boards varied greatly in thickness, even up to one inch, although it is entirely possible that very thick boards were designed to contain relics, as well as to cover the book. The use of wooden boards began to decline in favor of pasteboards during the first quarter of the 16th century, and in time paper "boards" virtually replaced wood entirely, except in certain novelty or specialty uses. Boards made of tarred rope, sailcloth, netting, and the like, came into use in England for more expensive bindings sometime around the beginning of the 18th century, and continued to be employed extensively until World War Il, or for sometime thereafter, when they became very expensive and difficult to procure. These so-called tar, semi-tar, and rope boards, which are generally referred to as MILLBOARD (1), are very hard and stiff. The binder's boards of today are usually made of paper and are available in many weights and thicknesses. Machine-made boards are generally available in four qualities: 1) machine boards, including a wide range of boards made from paper on a cylinder or Fourdrinier machine. These are usually single-ply, solid boards made to full thickness in one operation. They generally range in thickness from 0.030 to 0.300 inch; 2). STRAWBOARD, which originally was the yellowish board from Holland (and was sometimes called Holland board), but which now represents a generic board made from straw or similar material; 3) CHIPBOARD, made from waste paper, wood chips, and other inexpensive materials; and 4) RAG BOARD, made from rag stock. In terms of permanence, the various types of boards used today are probably of equal quality. Even old strawboard, which would appear to be the least permanent of all, shows little deterioration with age, even after a hundred years. Its characteristic brittleness is a physical property of this type of board and has little to do with deterioration. That boards in general deteriorate very little may be due largely to the fact that the boards of a book are generally, though not always, completely covered over and are thus largely protected from atmosphere, light, and other potentially damaging effects. It is perhaps interesting to note that, in terms of permanence (as the term is generally understood), strawboard and pasteboard, possibly due to the absence of metallic impurities, are probably more "permanent" than the hard and tough millboard. The weight (thickness) of the boards used in bookbinding should be appropriate to the size and weight of the volume being bound, and will generally range in thickness between 0.060 inch and, in the case of very large volumes, 0.205 inch in thickness. See also: LAMINATED BOARD. (143, 162, 180, 198, 230, 236)
binder's brass
A brass block engraved in relief with letters or a design, and used for blocking the covers of books, by means of either a hand-operated press or an automatic blocking machine. Cf: ZINCO. (307)
binder's cloth
A cloth binding of any age, which is not the product of EDITION BINDING. The term was most commonly used to indicate collections of pamphlets, French novels, etc., which the collector did not have bound in leather. Such bindings are almost always blocked from type or standard dies, and, if decorated at all, usually in an ordinary manner. Exceptions date from the earliest years of edition binding in cloth, when materials and style were still in the early stages of development. (69)
binder's record
The record kept by a binder, for the purposes of maintaining an accurate record of the various materials received from different customers. Such records generally include instructions for binding or special attention, including the manner in which similar materials were bound in the past, color of covering material, type of covering material, recorded size, lettering format, style and size of type, and the like. (24, 259)
binder's stamp
1. The stamp or label applied to a book indicating the bindery that bound the book, and sometimes the month and year in which the book was bound. It is generally located on the inside tail edge of the lower cover. This method of signing a bookbinding first became fashionable in the 20th century. 2. See: BINDER'S BRASS (261)
binder's ticket
A small engraved or printed label, usually found on the upper outside corner of one of the front flyleaves, giving the name (and usually the address) of the bookbinder. Tickets were used from the early 18th century until about 1825, but were not often seen in England until about 1780. The use of the ticket gave way to the practice by binders of lettering their names in gilt, blind, or ink, usually on the bottom turn-in of either upper or lower board. This record was sometimes referred to as a "name pallet." A variation of the ticket, usually printed, was used by some edition binders during the 19th century, and was usually located on the inside tail edge of the lower cover. (69)
binder's title
The form in which the title of a book appears on the spine or cover, the implication being that the title on the outside may differ, usually by being abbreviated, from the title as it appears on the title page.
binder's waste
1. See: WASTE SHEET (1). 2. Scraps of cloth, leather, board, etc., too small to be classed by themselves. 3. The scrap paper resulting from the trimming of books, and which, being clean, white, and unprinted, commands a premium price in the waste paper market.
bindery tapes
The tapes used to cover the binding edge of checkbooks, composition books, pads or tablets of writing paper, scrapbooks, and the like. They are also used as gussets for file folders, and as reinforcements for the punched edges of loose-leaf notebook paper. Bindery tapes make use of a variety of backing materials, ranging from Holland, cambric, and gusset cloths, through strong latex-impregnated materials to embossed, coated kraft papers. The tapes are made in a variety of colors, and most are applied automatically on stripping machines. The adhesive used on these tapes must be of reasonably high quality and strength, must have a moderate amount of working life after wetting, and must be capable of bonding quickly after application. Also called "gum stripping tapes." (309)
bindery warehouse
The unit or division, usually in an edition bindery, where the simpler forms of binding, i.e., pamphlets, single periodical issues, as well as other miscellaneous operations, such as cutting, folding, stapling, etc., take place, as contrasted with the main bindery, where the more elaborate styles of binding occur, generally those involving sewing. Many finishing operations, e.g., blocking, are common to both. The term is more prevalent in Great Britain than in the United States. (58)
bind from sheets
Bookbinding which originates from the flat or folded sheets, usually the former, as received from the printer. Binding from sheets is carried out principally in edition binderies, although pamphlet binding, as well as blankbook binding, might also be considered as such. A book to be bound by hand will generally be in better binding condition if received in sheets (or gatherings), but this occurs only in rare instances today. (83)
bind in
An instruction to the bookbinder to bind into the book separate supplementary material, as designated by the customer.
binding
1. The style in which a book is bound, e.g., edition binding, library binding, etc. 2. The covers of a bound book. 3. The finished work resulting from the processes involved in binding a book. 4. The concept of securing the leaves or sections of a publication so as to keep them in proper order and to protect them. 5. The style in which a book is decorated, e.g., fanfare style, cottage style, etc.
binding agent
An intermediary between a bookbinding establishment, usually a library bindery, and the customer, although not directly employed by either. The binding agent is a more-or-less independent salesman who solicits business for a commission.
binding before purchase
A term generally considered to mean the purchase of books by a library in sheets, to be bound according to the library's specifications before they receive any wear, and while the paper is still fresh, clean and unwrinkled. Binding before purchase is rare today, except for PRE-LIBRARY BOUND publications, which is not strictly the same thing. (25)
binding book
A book used by a library, in which the particulars of materials sent out for binding or rebinding are entered. It may vary in the information recorded, from a simple list of titles to full bibliographical information and binding instructions. The binding book has been largely superseded by the BINDING SLIP. (94)
binding edge
The edge of the gathered leaves or sections that is sewn, or otherwise secured. The binding edge of books published in the Western world is traditionally the left edge of a recto, corresponding to the right edge of a verso, but it may be any edge, the most common variant being the head.
binding margin
See: INNER MARGIN.
binding post
A metal post, generally threaded, used to secure pre-punched loose leaves between stiff or semi-flexible covers. Binding posts, which may be adaptable to expansion, are frequently considered a permanent form of binding. See also: POST BINDER (256, 274)
binding priorities
The ranking or ordering of different types of library materials to be bound or rebound. Priorities may be based on a variety of factors, including historical or research value, age, condition, use, monetary value, special or local interest, format, or combinations thereof. The establishment of priorities frequently, if not usually, implies that the library: 1) does not have sufficient funds to bind everything it acquires; or 2) does not consider it necessary to bind or rebind everything. An example of a system of priorities would be: 1) books of value, or of special interest to the library, that should be bound or rebound without regard to cost; 2) books of permanent interest but of no special monetary value, that should be library bound, but for which the best work would be too expensive; and 3) books of temporary interest that need to be held together and kept in readable condition for occasional reference or short-term hard usage. (84, 208, 326)
binding process
The two major divisions of BOOKBINDING, which are FORWARDING and FINISHING (1). Forwarding entails the binding operations, which are the work of the bookbinder; finishing includes decoration and embellishment of the outside (and sometimes the insides of the boards) surfaces of the covers (including the creation of the design), and is the work of the artist. Both operations may be, and frequently are, especially in the United States and Great Britain, performed by the same person.
binding program
The policies and procedures of a library relating to the care and preservation of its book collection, insofar as such procedures relate to library binding. A sound binding program is based on four fundamental factors: 1) a set of defined procedures within the library, with assignment of authority and responsibility, preferably to one person; 2) a binding budget adequate not only for the binding of new acquisitions but for rebinding in a systematic manner; 3) written binding specifications designed to provide for the preservation of the book collection, based on the purposes and goals of the library; and 4) an agreement or contract with a library binder of recognized competence. (208)
binding quirewise
A method of sewing a book, in which the sections are placed one inside another and then sewn or saddle stitched through the combined back folds. (179)
binding record
bindery record
A record of books sent to the binder. This may consist of circulation cards, duplicate binding slips, or special records kept in a book.
binding schedules
The times of pick-up and delivery by the binder from and to the library. Aside from the method of transportation, which should be by means of the binder's own truck, or at least on a non-commingled basis on contract, and not by common carrier, the binding schedule depends largely on five factors: 1) when the volume can best be spared from the library; 2) the most convenient time for preparing books for binding; 3) when the binder can bind books with the least delay; 4) when the library can accumulate a sufficient number of volumes to make up a shipment of reasonable size; and 5) when the library is in the best position to pay for the work done. 131)
binding schemes
A term at one time used to describe an organized scheme carried through an individual's or library's book collection, in which, for example, all books on history were bound in red, technical books in black, fiction in brown, poetry in buff, books relating to the sea in blue, books on travel in orange, and so on. Such schemes have declined in popularity since the turn of the century, and particularly since the development of systematic classification schemes. See also: BRIGHTER BINDING. (310)
binding slip
A card, slip, sheet, or other form of written instructions sent to the bindery with each volume, or set of volumes, specifying the binding requirements for that volume or set. The typical binding slip generally specifies the author (if any), title (sometimes binding specifications abbreviated), classification number, other bibliographical information, binding style (unless previously agreed upon), color of covering material, as well as any peculiarities of the book that should be brought to the attention of the binder, such as margins, condition of the paper, foldouts, loose material (for pockets), etc. A multiple form provides identical copies for the binder, as well as the library, and serves as verification for the work specified.
binding specifications
The description of the materials, manufacturing processes, and standards of workmanship to be employed in binding books for a library or similar institution. Material specifications include the quality and weight (or size) of thread, paper, cloth (or leather), adhesives, mending tissues, gold, foil, inks, etc., of such things as endpapers, guards, stubs, hinges, inlays, linings, tapes, sewing thread. covering materials, and the like. Manufacturing specifications include collation, preparation for sewing, special checking, reinforcing, removing back folds, scoring, construction and attachment of endpapers, trimming, gluing-up, blocking, casing-in, inspection, etc. Workmanship specifications include sewing, rounding and backing, adhesion of materials, turn-ins, squares, corners, trimming and the like. Specifications, it should be noted, are not intended to instruct the binder in how to bind a book, but only to insure an acceptable end product. (16, 25, 83)
binding variations
Differences in the bindings of books issued in the same edition by a publisher. The differences might include color or type of cloth, blocking, etc. Such variations may stem from a number of manufacturing causes, especially if all copies printed are not bound at the same time, or some are rebound, as in REMAINDER BINDING. Variations may also result from unsatisfactory storage conditions. (69, 156)
birch (bark)
The bark of the common European birch (Betula verrucosa) or (B. pubescens), used in leather manufacture, particularly in Russia, for hundreds of years. The outer bark, which peels off easily, is not used; it is the inner bark from which the tannin, in the amount of 10 to 15%, and 11% soluble non-tans, is extracted. Older trees, those 50 to 60 years of age, yield the richest tannin. Used alone, birch produces a pliable, leather of a yellowish-brown color; it is, however, more often mixed with some other tannin, often willow bark. In addition to tannin, the oil obtained from the bark is used to dress the leather, imparting to RUSSIA LEATHER its characteristic odor. Other species of birch have been used to a limited extent in North America and India. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
birch broom
A "broom" made of strips of birch wood and used for stirring the MARBLING SIZE. A birch broom has been the traditional implement for this operation, but whether it was because of the quantities of water used, the screening action of the birch strips, or some other reason, is not clear. (97, 335)
bite
1. The ability of an adhesive to penetrate or dissolve the uppermost layer of the adherends. 2. That quality in paper which causes it to take ink, pencil, or printing impressions readily. 3) In engraving, the corrosion of the metal by acid, i.e., the action of acid dissolving away superfluous metal. (138, 139)
bites
An informal expression sometimes used to indicate pieces of paper torn from the margin of a leaf, so-called because of their occasional resemblance to "bites."
black book
An obsolete term applied to any of the various books, usually of a devotional nature, so-called from the style of their type, the color of their bindings, the nature of their contents, or combinations thereof. They also frequently had BLACK EDGES. (274)
black edges
The edges of a book that have been blackened by sponging them with ink, followed by ivory black, lampblack, or antimony mixed with paste. Although used extensively in the 19th century on devotional and funereal publications, they are uncommon today. (152, 241)
blacking the squares
The process of coloring the edges and squares of the boards of a book, as well as the headcaps, with a black pigment, such as vinegar-black mixed with gum arabic, so as to enhance the effect of tooling in blind. The technique is uncommon today. (152, 241)
black lead
Commercial powdered graphite, which, when mixed with water, glair, and (sometimes) Armenian bole, is applied to the edges of books before gilding. See also: GILT EDGES. (335, 371)
blacks
1. An obsolete term for a grade of book cloth of a "common" quality, dyed throughout. 2. A general term applied to black papers used for covers, photograph albums, and the like. (256)
black step
A heavy line, 6 points thick and about 24 points long, which appears on the back of a folded section of a book after the printed sheet is folded. The collective black steps run from the head to the tail of the gathered sections, generally about 24 points below each other. When the book is gathered the black steps appear as a diagonal line running from head to tail across the back of the text block, and any missing or misplaced section immediately becomes obvious because the black step is broken. Also called "back mark," "collating mark," and "quad mark." (156)
blanc fixe
See: BARIUM SULFATE.
blankbook
Originally, a book in which the printing was limited to page headings or divisions. The page was generally blank or ruled and was intended to receive writing. Today, blankbooks include a variety of items, including account books, albums, scrapbooks, exercise and manuscript books, etc. Blankbooks intended for the accounting of court records, etc., are generally ruled, horizontally and/or vertically, to facilitate writing. Since in most cases the information recorded is considered to be of permanent value, the paper and binding of the book must be of superior quality. Called "account book" in Great Britain. See also: BLANKBOOK BINDING. (227, 274)
blankbook binding
A style of binding for books meant to be written in and which, therefore, must lie flat at any place the book is open. Blankbook binding is one of the principal subdivisions of STATIONERY BINDING and differs greatly from the other major nit of binding, LETTERPRESS BINDING. One of the major differences is that blankbooks, or account books, as they are also called, are rounded but not backed, having instead a SPRING-BACK, which, in conjunction with the LEVERS, causes the spine of the book to "spring" up when the book is opened, thus giving full access to the gutter of the opposing pages. The best blankbook binding is very durable, with sewing on wide bands of webbing, rather than tapes, the ends of which are secured between split boards. The books also have heavy linings and strongly reinforced endpapers, called "joints" in a blankbook. In addition, it is not unusual for the folios to be sewn first to heavy cloth guards before being sewn to the webbings. Additional strength is sometimes imparted by hubs on the spine (which also protect the lettering) and bands either over or blankbook frame under the covering material. Although formerly always covered in leather, many blankbooks are now covered in heavy duck or canvas. Called "account-book binding" in Great Britain. (58, 320, 339, 343)
blankbook frame
An obsolete term for a sewing frame designed to be used when tapes instead of cords are used in sewing. See also: SEWING FRAME. (115)
blankbook paper
See: LEDGER PAPER.
blank cover
A term sometimes applied to the covers of a bound book that are not blocked or ornamented in any manner.
blanking
1. The process of blocking book cloths that are patterned, i.e., grained. Before the use of hot dies and foils eliminated the need for blanking, the cloth was struck with the uninked die, which flattened out the pattern or grain of the cloth, leaving a smooth surface to take the ink on the subsequent strike. 2. A term sometimes used incorrectly with reference to blinding. See: BLIND TOOLING. (91, 365)
blank leaves
The unprinted leaves at the front and back of a book. They may be an integral part of the book as received from the publisher (printer's flyleaves), or they may be added by the bookbinder (binder's flyleaves). They are not necessarily part of the endpapers. (69)
blank rolling
A method of sprinkling a FLESHER, in which an iron solution is applied to the leather and rolled in. The nap is then restored by brushing.
blank tooling
See: BLIND TOOLING.
bleach
1. A chemical, usually an oxidizing or reducing agent, used to whiten or increase the brightness of a material, e.g., paper or paper pulp. See also: BLEACHING (1) 2. A solution of chlorine or a similar chemical. 3. To whiten or increase the brightness of a material, or to remove stains from paper. See: BLEACHING (2).
bleached groundwood paper
A paper manufactured from groundwood pulp which has been bleached by means of a suitable chemical, e.g., sodium peroxide, zinc hydrosulfite, etc, or a combination of chemicals. It is substantially brighter than unbleached groundwood paper and is not significantly less bright than paper produced from bleached sulfate or sulfite pulps. (17, 72)
bleached sulfate paper
A class of paper generally used in grades of white, as well as for boards requiring strength. The pulp is fully bleached with chlorine dioxide, or the dioxide plus peroxide, with or without hypochlorite, in multistage bleaching operations. Its high brightness is attainable with strength characteristics not substantially lower than that of an unbleached chemical pulp. (17, 72)
bleached sulfite paper
A paper which has been bleached in one stage by means of peroxide or hypochlorite, or in a multistage operation using peroxide and/or chlorine dioxide. The paper has high brightness with good stability. (17, 72)
bleaching
1. The process of treating pulps used in papermaking with chemicals to alter their color so that the pulp and the resulting paper will have greater brightness. Such bleaching is usually accompanied by partial removal of noncellulosic materials, e.g., LIGNIN. 2. The process of chemically treating archival materials in order to remove stains, discoloration, foxing, etc., and/or to restore brightness. Both oxidizing—i.e., chemicals which take up electrons—and reducing—i.e., chemicals which give up electrons—chemicals are used, the former much more extensively than the latter. Chemicals which are, or have been, used include CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE, CHLORAMINE T. , CHLORINE DIOXIDE, FORMALDEHYDE, HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, POTASSIUM METABISULFITE, SODIUM CHLORATE, SODIUM CHLORITE, SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE, and SODIUM PEROXIDE. 3. The process of lightening the color of a vegetable-tanned leather by means of the removal of the oxidized tannins and insoluble matter from the outer surfaces of the skin, usually by treatment with a solution of sodium carbonate, washing, and then treatment with diluted acid. Chrome-tanned leathers are usually bleached by treating the skin with acid solutions of syntans and at times by precipitating white pigments in the grain layer of the leather to impart a bleached appearance. 4. The destructive effects of chemical agents on water colors, inks, fugitive colors, etc. 5. The generally undesirable and destructive effect of natural and artificial light on archival materials, especially cloth and leather bookbindings. (62, 77, 218, 320, 323)
bleaching powder
See: CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE.
bled
The printed image, plates, or illustrations of a book that have been cut into during trimming, e.g., BLEED BORDER, BLEED ILLUSTRATION.
bleed
1. To trim the edges of a book to the extent that part of the letterpress is removed. 2. A printed image which runs off the edge of a page. 3. The process of deliberately trimming so as to "bleed" a page. See also: BLEED BORDER; BLEED ILLUSTRATION. (82, 365)
bleed border
A heavy border on a printed page or sheet, especially on the cover of a pamphlet or booklet, printed in such a position that part of it is cut away in trimming.
bleed illustration
An illustration that runs to one or more edges of the page, leaving no margin. If the bleeding is to be accomplished by means of cropping, the illustration must be designed so that nothing of importance is removed by trimming. When an illustration occupies an entire page, it is said to bleed on three sides, i.e., head, tail, and fore edge, and run flush to the gutter. See also: CENTER SPREAD. (131)
bleeding
1. See: BLEED. 2. The removal of color from a paper or paper pulp due to the action of water or another liquid, which dissolves the coloring matter. 3. Discoloration of the surface of a paper due to the migration of residual oils. 4. The tendency of colored papers to stain contiguous leaves, usually due to the presence of water or moisture of some kind. 5. The diffusion of uncombined materials from the interior of leather to the grain surface where they may contaminate other materials or mar the appearance of the leather. This usually occurs at elevated temperatures and is commonly designated as staining. (17, 72, 325, 363)
blesbock
A South African antelope, Damaliscus albifrons, the skin of which has been used to produce a bold-grained leather, in imitation of SEALSKIN.
blind blocking
The process of lettering or decorating a book with BINDER'S BRASS or ZINCO only, i.e., without gold leaf, ink, or foil. (307)
blind finishing
Any of the several techniques of decorating a binding by tooling without the use of gold, or other leaf metals, or coloring materials. Blind finishing includes: 1) impressing the surface of the covering material with a heated tool (See: BLIND TOOLING); 2) embossing leather from the flesh side while wet, with the pattern being outlined by an indented line; and 3) cutting the leather so as to create a design in relief. See: CUIR-CISELÉ.
blind impressions
Virtually the same process as BLIND BLOCKING, except that it generally applies to hand tooling. In blind impressions, there are generally two impressions of the tool or letter, the first made through the design or lettering on paper with a warm tool and a second done directly on the impression. This second step assures an evenness and straightness of the impression, and, because the impression through the paper is larger, the second makes the final impression the correct size. (161)
blind lines
1. The impressed lines on the spine of a leather binding along each side of the raised bands. Such lines are usually impressed with a two-line PALLET (1). 2. The blind lines made by a FILLET (1) without the use of leaf metal or foil. (335)
blind-stamped panel
blind-stamped binding
A form of decoration on the covers of a binding impressed by means of an engraved stamp (bearing a complete design) on the dampened leather. Virtually all early plates were cut intaglio (with a three dimensional effect and not as a two dimensional printing block), the resulting image on the cover being in relief. Panels were still being used in (German) bookbinding until well into the 18th century. The art originated in the Low Countries, and was practiced there from the 14th century on. Characteristic designs consisted of animals in circles or loops of foliage. The art flourished in France from about 1488 to 1528; in Germany, extensive use was made of blind-stamped panels on covers of pigskin bindings, mainly after 1550. The blind-stamped panel was in use in England from about 1480 to 1580, but it was not really popular until about 1500. The most used motifs included the royal arms and heraldic devices. Rectangular panels made with a single stamp continued in use until about 1623. Because of the great pressure required to impress a complete design, a standing press of some kind must have been used. The most commonly used leathers for these bindings were calfskin and pigskin. (140, 166, 236)
blind stamping
A term originally used with reference to stamping a leather cover with small, unheated tools that were cut intaglio so that the impression was in relief. See also: BLIND TOOLING. (236)
blind tooling
A method of decorating a book in which impressions are made in the covering material, usually leather or tawed skin, by means of heated tools, pallets, rolls, fillets, or combinations of one or more of these. As the name implies, blind tooling does not entail the use of leaf metal, foil, or any other coloring material, with the possible exception of carbon, which is sometimes used to darken the impressions. The effect of blind tooling rests largely on the depth and uniformity of the impressions (which makes it unsuitable for use with hard covering materials) and the ability of the heated tool to produce a darkened color (see above)—factors which make leather, especially in the lighter shades, an ideal medium for this method of decoration. The critical aspects of the technique are the temperature of the tool and the degree of dampness of the leather. In general, the damper the leather the cooler the tool should be, and vice versa. In tooling leather blind, the surface is given a quick initial strike to "set" the leather in the impression. The tool is then impressed again and rocked slightly, which polishes and darkens the impression. When blind lines run across the spine of the book, polishing is accomplished by sliding a pallet along the lines; on the covers, where a fillet is used for long lines, it is fixed so that instead of rolling, it slides along the impression. Blind tooling has been used as a means of decorating books since the early days of bookbinding, and can be traced back to COPTIC BINDINGS of the 7th or 8th centuries, and even earlier. There is reason to believe that the technique was brought to Europe from the Mediterranean area about the same time as other Coptic techniques being used, possibly by imported craftsmen; however, little is known of blind-tooled bindings until the 12th century and early part of the 13th. In one form or another, the technique has been used continuously up to the present day, but during the 16th to 18th centuries, its use was more or less limited to inferior calf- and sheepskin bindings. Near the end of the 18th and during the early years of the 19th centuries blind tooling was often used on fine bindings in conjunction with gold. Also called "antique tooling." (94, 123, 130, 236, 335)
blind warbles
See: WARBLES.
blisters
1. Bubbles or pockets of air, water vapor, solvent vapor, etc., trapped between the board and PASTEDOWN of a book, causing the board paper to bulge, forming a blister. A blister effect may also be caused by a small mass of adhesive, which stretches the covering material, or by failure of the covering material to adhere properly, causing a protuberance or "blister" between board and covering material. 2. Defects in paper resulting from too rapid drying of the web or poor condition of the drying felts which allows air between the felt and web. Blisters are also defects in coated papers caused by too rapid expansion of moisture in the interior of the sheet when subjected to the high drying temperatures of web presses. (5, 17)
block
A piece of metal, without a handle, bearing an engraved or etched design and used in decorating the covers of a book. It is intended to be used in a press. See also: BLOCKING (1); BLOCKING PRESS. (82, 234)
block book
A book printed from cut blocks of wood. Although it is presumed that block books preceded the invention of printing from movable metal type, most of the extant examples of block books are from the period 1460 to 1480, i.e., subsequent to printing from metal types. Each block was cut for an entire page, and, in the earliest examples, each leaf was printed only on one side, usually with a thin, brownish ink. The spread of printing virtually eliminated the demand for this type of book but they continued to be printed until at least the end of the 15th century. These later examples were printed on both sides of the leaf with ordinary printing ink. Block books are essentially picture books, sometimes with a small amount of text, also cut in wood. (69, 140, 156)
blocking
1. The process or technique of impressing a design into the covering material of a book by means of a stamp or BLOCK having an engraved or etched surface. The term applies to the impressing of type, blocks, etc., with foil, leaf, etc., or without (BLIND BLOCKING). Since the area that can be blocked by hand is relatively small (about one square inch, or less), large areas are blocked using a BLOCKING PRESS. The permanency of the blocking, particularly when gold leaf is used, depends largely on the pressure applied by the craftsman, or the force of the blocking press, which drives the raised surfaces of the block or die into the covering material. Hand blocking may be done on curved or flat surfaces, while blocking by means of a press is generally done on flat surfaces only. 2. The surface tackiness that book cloths sometimes develop as they age. 3. An undesirable condition in which a dry adhesive film is reactivated by heat, pressure, moisture, etc., and adheres to a material in contact with it. (94, 179, 236, 276, 309)
blocking foil
A thin plastic film with a high vacuum deposit of gold or other metal and backed by a pressure-sensitive adhesive. White and colored pigments are also available. They are used in the same way as gold leaf, the impression being obtained by means of a heated die, block, type, etc. Blocking foils are used extensively in library and edition binding. (81, 92, 161)
blocking powder
A finely ground resin used in dusting over the impressions in silk and velvet before gold tooling. Such resins are used in lieu of GLAIR because moisture would stain the silk or velvet. The powder has the advantage of requiring only a moderately hot tool, whereas glair requires considerably more heat to make the gold adhere. Blocking powder, however, does not provide the solidity of adhesion to gold leaf that is obtainable with a liquid size; therefore, it is generally used only when a liquid size is impractical. (154)
blocking press
A press which heats blocks and impresses lettering. designs, etc., into the covers of books. In edition binding this is done automatically, gold or pigment foils being fed through the machine on a thin plastic BLOCKING FOIL. The blocking press is used for BLIND BLOCKING or ink blocking; heat is not required for the latter process. When gold leaf is used it is laid directly on the book cover. The blocking press first came into use in England in the period 1830-32 for gold blocking on book cloths. Before this time books were blocked with a block that was heated off the press and then laid on the cover and pressed. Also called "embossing press" and, in the United States, "stamping press." (107, 203, 236)
block printing
The process of printing from hand-carved blocks of wood or linoleum. Modern blocks, which are made up of relatively heavy lines and solid areas, are cut for relief printing, and are inked or colored only on the uncut surfaces. If printing in two or more colors is required, the colors can be applied and printed in one impression, printed in two or more impressions, or two or more blocks can be cut. In the early days of block printing, it was a common practice to print the outline of the design and then apply the colors by hand. The relatively soft surfaces of blocks of wood or linoleum limit the number of impressions that can be made. (234)
blood stone burnisher
See: BURNISHER(S) (1)
bloom
1. A deposit of ellagic acid formed in and on leathers tanned with vegetable tannins of the pyrogallol class, probably as a result of the action of enzymes native to the original source, i.e., bark, acorns, etc. Although bloom affects the physical properties of leather in that it increases weight yield, firmness, and water resistance, it is deposited in insoluble form and is not chemically combined with the fibers of the leather. Its presence at times gives an unsightly appearance to the leather. 2. A misty surface appearance in an illustration, caused by an excess of acid or too much drier in the ink. 3. The dulling film that sometimes appears on varnish and glossy paint films, particularly in industrial atmospheres. It usually consists of minute crystals of ammonium sulfate produced by the reaction between sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and oxygen in condensed moisture on the film. Bloom can appear on a freshly lacquered surface when rapid evaporation of the solvents causes the temperature of the surface to fall below the dew point. Moisture is deposited on the film, causing a limited precipitation of cellulose nitrate and giving the film a permanent cloudy appearance. (175, 195, 306, 363)
blotting paper
A completely unsized sheet of paper, generally used to take up excess ink from hand-written documents, letters, etc. It is also used to absorb moisture from freshly washed or deacidified book and manuscript papers, prints, maps, etc. It is often made from high grade rag or cotton linters, and also from chemical or mechanical wood pulps, or mixtures thereof. The paper is porous, bulky, and has a low finish and little strength. Basis weights generally range from 60 to 140 pounds (19 X 24—500). Aside from its use as an absorbent paper, it can be ground up, mixed with size, and used to fill in worm and other small holes in paper. (17, 316)
blue
blue sort
Hides and skins that have been chrome tanned but not finished. Such skins are usually called "in the blue," or "blue sort." (325)
blue agate marble
A cover marble, consisting of black coloring in large (united) drops, with blue streams down the boards uniting with the black. See also: GREEN AGATE MARBLE. (97, 152)
blue-and-gold edition
A format for volumes of poetry, essays, etc., popular in the United States in the 1870s. The covering cloth was blue and the edges were gilt. The books were small, measuring about 6 by 3 1/2 inches. (169)
blueprint paper
A paper produced from cotton fiber pulp, bleached chemical wood pulp, or combinations thereof, in basis weights of 12 to 30 pounds (17 X 22—500). It has a well-formed, fairly smooth surface, good wet tensile strength, and, although well-sized, uniform absorbency. Blueprint paper must not contain chemicals which might have an adverse effect on its sensitizing materials. The paper is sensitized by treating the base paper with chemicals, including potassium ferrocyanide, as well as with iron salts, such as the oxalates and tartrates. (17)
blue stormont marble
A marble pattern used for both endpapers and edges, consisting of a red vein with indigo fillers dotted with numerous small interstices in the form of a fine network. This pattern was popular during the first half of the 19th century, but was also used in the 18th. See also: STORMONT MARBLE. (97, 236)
board
A generic term for a stiff and thick "paper." The distinction between board and paper is somewhat vague; however, in general, board is heavier in basis weight, thicker, and stiffer than paper. Most sheets 0.012 or more inches in thickness are considered to be boards, while nearly all less than 0.006 inch are termed paper; most of those in between these dimensions are also classed as paper. Blotting paper, in excess of 0.012 inch, however, is still classed as paper, and liner board, although sometimes less than 0.012 inch thick, is classed as board. See also: BINDER'S BOARD. (17, 19, 42)
board cutter
A lever type of cutter mounted on a flat bed and used for cutting hard millboard, and similar materials. The bed is equipped with a movable gauge against which the stock is placed for accurate cutting, and a foot-operated clamp which secures the material for cutting. The blade usually has one or more counterweights at the end opposite the handle to help prevent the knife from falling accidently, and also to reduce the effort required to raise the blade. See also: BENCH KNIFE; ROTARY BOARD CUTTER. (66)
boarded leather
A leather which has been softened and the grain side of which has been lightly creased by the process of BOARDING (1).
boarding
1. A method of producing a design on the grain side of leather, as well as softening it, by means of a series of creases produced on the surface of the skin. Boarding is accomplished by folding the leather, grain side to grain side, and working the fold board knife across its surface. A straight or "willow" grain results when the skin is boarded on one direction, and a box or "cross" grain when it is also boarded at right angles to the first. Boarding a third time in a direction diagonal to the first two produces a pebbled-grain pattern. Boarding may be done by hand, using a cork-surfaced board called a GRAINING BOARD, the fold of the leather being rolled under the board, or, as is the usual case today, by means of a boarding machine, in which the leather is rolled between two cylinders, one covered with cork or rubber and the other with felt or rubber. 2. See: GRAINED UP. (306, 363)
board knife
1. A knife of elliptical shape attached to the arm of a hand-operated BENCH KNIFE. 2. One of the circular knives of a ROTARY BOARD CUTTER. (66)
board machine
See: CYLINDER MACHINE.
board paper
See: PASTEDOWN.
boards
1. A generic term for the pieces of wood, metal, or metal-edged wood used to assist in gripping books while in process of being bound. Such boards are used in pressing, backing, bundling, gilding, trimming, and other operations. 2. The state or condition of being IN BOARDS or OUT OF BOARDS. 3. See: BINDER'S BOARD.
bock
A leather made from the skin of a so-called Persian sheep, which is a sheep that has coarse hair instead of wool. It was used in the latter part of the 19th and early part of the 20th centuries as a substitute for goatskin. When finished and grained usually embossed) in imitation of MOROCCO, it was referred to as "bock morocco." (91, 256)
body paper
The foundation paper or board for finished papers, such as art, chromo, coated, gummed, and others, which are made by coating or treating with composition. (82)
body board
See BODY PAPER.
bolt
The folded edge at the head, tail, or fore edge of a section of an unopened book. Depending on location, it is known as a head bolt, tail bolt, or fore edge bolt. Bolts are generally located at the head and fore edge, but cannot be located at all three edges in any one section. The folded edge opposite the fore edge is not a "bolt," but a spine fold, or "last fold." Bolts are often opened quickly and with little care, resulting in ragged edges that are difficult to handle when turning leaves. A dull knife used carefully will result in a clean cut, while a knife that is too sharp is difficult to control and often cuts away from the bolt and into one or more leaves.
bolt knife
One of the two types of knives that can be used for cutting the edges of books with the PLOW. The bolt knife is fastened to the shoe of the plow, consequently its position cannot be changed, as can that of the SLIDING KNIFE. The sliding type is less expensive and easier to attach, and has almost completely superceded the bolt type.
bond
1. In adhesives, the process of joining two structures together, i.e., to create an assembly by means of adhesive linkage. 2. A form of insurance agreement under which a bonding company guarantees to pay a library within stated limits for any financial loss, or for failure of the binder to perform in accordance with the terms of the contract, i.e., to follow specifications, to charge the agreed-upon price, to return materials within the time specified in the contract, or to otherwise be found in default of the contract. 3. See: BOND PAPER. (309)
bonding strength
The resistance of paper, either coated or uncoated, to splitting or to the picking or lifting of its surface while being printed. (17)
bond paper
A grade of writing or printing paper, now only vaguely associated with bonds, legal documents, etc., i.e., where durability and permanence are required. Bond paper today is widely used for forms, invoices, etc., and is a strong, tough paper that can take stiff, hard ink that dries by oxidation rather than by penetration. Bonds are produced from cotton fiber pulp, bleached chemical wood pulps, or combinations thereof. Although a bond is a typical writing paper, almost all of it is printed, e.g., letterheads; therefore it must have good printability, as well as good writing and erasing qualities. It must also possess cleanliness, formation, color, finish, and freedom from fuzz. It is usually made in basis weights ranging from 13 to 24 pounds (17 X 22—500). (17, 287, 316)
bond strength
The unit load, applied in tension, compression, flexure, peel, cleavage, or sheer, required to break two adherend materials, with failure occurring in or near the plane of the bond. The bond strength of adhesives used in archival work should be such that stress to the point of failure will result in failure of the adhesive, rather than either adherend. (309)
bone cutting
A colloquial term used with reference to the slitting operation performed when an insert must be tipped-in a section, rather than onto the first or last leaf. (339)
bone dust
An abrasive composed of crushed and ground bones, which, when mixed with powdered chalk and pumice, is used to clean vellum bindings.
bone glue
A GLUE processed from the collagen content of bones, mainly from "green" or fresh bones of bovine animals. Bone glue prepared from solvent-extracted, degreased bones is called "extracted bone glue." (184)
Bonet Paul
1899-1972
An artisan and bibliophile who turned to the art of creating designs, Bonet was probably the most influential French designer of bookbindings of his day. He was at first influenced by the bindings of PIERRE LE GRAIN. While his early work was in purely geometrical gold fillet design, his later creations were related more closely to the spirit and theme of the book being decorated. Bonet had available to him the best bookbinders and gilders in Paris, and with them he concentrated on the contrasting textures of leathers, wood, and even metals, with surfaces scultptured and pierced, achieving nearly mathematical repetition of linear forms and even surrealist effects produced by collage and photography. See PLATE IX. (104, 347)
bonnet board
A very hard-rolled, thin, smooth-surfaced board similar to file indices; sometimes used for notebook covers.
book
See illustration 1. A collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank leaves of paper, parchment (or vellum), papyrus, or other flexible or semi-flexible material, strung or bound together. Today, in its most familiar form, a book is considered to be one or more folded and gathered sheets of paper, fastened together at one edge, and trimmed on one or more of the remaining three edges to form a continuous series of uniform leaves. Specifically, a book is a collection of single sheets or folded leaves, bearing printing or writing, that have been folded, stitched, sewn, or secured by adhesive along the binding edge, generally rounded and backed, and usually secured between boards that have been covered in cloth, paper, or like material, or which have been bound in leather. See: CODEX. 2. A collection of tablets of wood, ivory, or other rigid material, containing writing, drawings, etc., and sometimes covered with blank covers of the same or different materials. 3. A continuous roll of parchment, or similar material, or a book and job folding machine strip of parchment creased between columns and folded in the manner of a CONCERTINA FOLD, and containing writing, etc. See also: SCROLL (1). (102, 123, 156, 161)
book and job folding machine
A type of buckle folding machine having four folding levels, each at right angles to the preceding and following levels, which permit up to four right angle folds, resulting in 16 leaves (32 pages) from one sheet. This type of machine also has one and sometimes two parallel sections, which enables it to produce a section of up to 64 leaves from one sheet. Book and job folding machines are also sometimes equipped for cutting, padding, and trimming. See also: FOLDING MACHINES. (320)
book basis
The BASIC SIZE of the sheet of paper most often used in book printing in the United States- 25 by 38 inches.
bookbinder
A craftsman who binds book; a binder; a bibliopegist. The term is also applied to one who creates the designs for the finishing of a book, but who may or may not actually execute the design. Although usually assumed to mean a hand bookbinder, the term is frequently applied to the owner or manager of a bookbinding establishment, e.g., a library bookbinder.
bookbinder's type
Individual letters and number of ordinary type, without handles, designed to be set in a LETTERING PALLET or BLOCKING PRESS, and used to letter books. The use of the pallet or press gives uniformity to the lettering and saves time, but it does not give the freedom and individuality that is available with the use of HAND LETTERS. Type, on the other hand, is extremely useful when lettering a number of copies of the same title. (339)
bookbindery
A place where books are bound, such as a library or edition bindery, etc. Also, as generally understood, a place where various operations connected with printing, but not always with bookbinding, are carried out, such as ruling, perforating, numbering, folding, gathering, padding, etc. See also: BLANKBOOK BINDING; BOOKBINDING; EDITION BINDING; GENERAL JOB BINDING; GENERAL OFFICE STATIONERY BINDING; LIBRARY BINDING; MANIFOLD BINDING; MECHANICAL BINDING; PAMPHLET BINDING.
bookbinding
The hand and/or machine processes by which leaves or sections (usually paper, but also parchment (or vellum), papyrus, etc.) are secured within covers to form a codex or book, as opposed to a roll. Historically, bookbinding did not exist in the manner of today until the codex began to replace the scroll, or roughly 2,000 years ago, when parchment notebooks came into use. Leaves of a quadrangular shape were found to be more convenient than scrolls but they had to be secured and covered for protection. Although classical texts and ecclesiastical works did exist in codex form before the 1st century A.D., the codex did not become common for other works before the 4th century. The earliest extant decorated bookbindings were altar Bibles, which were often elaborately bound and ornamented with jewels, gold, and ivory. Bookbinding in leather, however, was an art believed to have been practiced by the Copts in Egypt. Surviving examples of Coptic bindings, in red and brown leather, from the 8th and 9th centuries, represent a maturity of style and a variety of techniques which would indicate experience in bookbinding that probably developed over hundreds of years. Unlike European bindings of later times, they appear to have been executed by specialists in diverse forms of leather decoration and display a wide range of artistry, including tooling, piercing, and working with a stylus. The earliest known Islamic bindings were influenced by Coptic methods and techniques. The format they used for these early books was what we sometimes refer to today as OBLONG, or "landscape." At first the Islamic binders tooled only in blind, and in a formal style, but by the 11th century the characteristic Islamic design consisted of an oval center design with triangular cornerpieces, and, by the 13th century, the present day book format had been adopted and gold was being used in finishing. See: GOLD TOOLING. Two hundred years later floral designs were replacing geometric patterns and some pictorial bindings were being executed by means of embossing. Vivid coloring and delicate filigree tooling were used with considerable effect on the DOUBLURE (1), and, by the 16th century, lacquered bindings of excellent quality were being produced. By the 16th century, however, Islamic binding began to deteriorate, and the decline has persisted to this day. In Europe, the earliest known example of a decorated leather bookbinding is that of the Gospel according to St. John, found in the tomb of St. Cuthbert (d. 687); it is almost certainly an English binding of the 7th or 8th century. Although this remarkable binding shows the influence of Coptic and Islamic binding, European binding took on its own characteristics and by the 10th century had progressed along totally different lines from that of the Levant. One of the principal differences was in the manner of sewing, which was on raised bands; embellishment, too, developed along different lines, almost always being in the form of blind tooling executed with individual tools. Gothic bindings of the second half of the 15th century were mainly decorated with blind lines and individual tools, but the ROLL (1) which was first used in Germany, was also developed during this period (in about 1470), while the PANEL STAMP was being used in the Netherlands as early as the 13th century. The art of CUIR-CISELÉ was also practiced in German speaking countries. Gothic bindings continued to be produced in Germany and Eastern Europe until after the 16th century; however, by about 1470 or so, gold tooling was introduced into northern Italy (probably Venice), with the influence of the Near East being seen in the designs, the pattern of individual tools, as well as the superior delicacy of the workmanship. Until about the middle of the 16th century the gold tooled bindings produced in Italy were the best in Europe; other countries, especially France, imitated the Italian style. By 1538, however, morocco leather was being used in France, replacing calfskin, and from that time onward the Parisian craftsmen have produced bindings that have seldom been exceeded in beauty and craftsmanship. The tools used in this great era of French bookbinding were derived by way of pattern books for embroidery or metalwork from Oriental or arabesque models; most of the designs incorporated interlacing strapwork. Elaborations of this strapwork were seen in the FANFARE STYLE. The most characteristic early 16th century English bindings were those blocked in blind with panel stamps of the royal arms (which represented only a form of decoration and not royal ownership), while the earliest recorded use of gold tooling in England dates from 1519. Gold tooling did not become common in England until about 1530. Fine binding declined in France in the 17th century despite the artistry of the fanfare patterns and tools having POINTILLÉ outlines. One notable binder of that time was FLORIMOND BADIER, who also worked in pointillé tooling. In England, where variegated colors and delicate tooling became standard, the golden age of English bookbinding was during the period of the Restoration. Some of the tools in use at that time were of the pointillé style, while others, including small floral volutes, were more English in character. A common feature of many English bindings of this time was the broken pediment associated with the COTTAGE STYLE. The early 18th century witnessed a revival of French bookbinding, including the mosaics of AUGUSTIN DU SEUIL and ANTOINE MICHEL PADELOUP. High standards were also displayed in DENTELLE bindings with their lacy gold tooled borders, some being the work of the Derome family. See: DEROME STYLE. English binding deteriorated in the first half of the 18th century, partly because English craftsmen hung on to the cottage style after it had lost its effectiveness, and partly because they then began working with the uninspiring HARLEIAN STYLE. And yet, the 18th century produced ROGER PAYNE, a bookbinder who has been called England's greatest, and one of the few English binders the French thought worthy of copying. In addition, the 18th century produced another of England s great bookbinders, EDWARDS OF HALIFAX, who produced some remarkable TRANSPARENT VELLUM bindings. The use of onlays and inlays increased during the 19th century, the bindings often being tooled in the cathedral style. See: CATHEDRAL BINDINGS. From about 1840 to 1880 there was little innovation in leather binding in any country, the emphasis being on delicacy and precision in tooling in the manner of previous times. The 19th century witnessed three major factors which have had an enormous effect on bookbinding to this day: 1) the rise of edition binding with its rapid development of a great variety of machines designed to produce books by the millions; 2) a severe decline in the quality of both paper and leather produced for the manufacture of books; and 3) the introduction of cloth as a book covering material. See: BOOK CLOTH. In the latter part of the last century new vigor was infused into fine binding largely through the efforts of MARIUS MICHEL in France and THOMAS J. COBDEN-SANDERSON in England. In France, following World War I, the origins of contemporary binding are to be found in the work of PIERRE LEGRAIN during his brief career as a bookbinder in the 1920s. His influence was enormous and is still being felt, and, in turn, those he influenced, including PAUL BONET, have had considerable influence upon their successors. The influence of Cobden-Sanderson was also felt well into the 20th century. The fact that he was an amateur bookbinder and not apprenticed to the trade of bookbinding seemed, in part, anyway, to have freed him from the deleterious influences that held sway during a great part of the 19th century, as manifested in the generally poor workmanship and even poorer materials plus a mania for retrospective binding. Cobden-Sanderson founded an amateur school of binding, which proceeded to flourish under DOUGLAS COCKERELL, who was Cobden-Sanderson's apprentice at the Doves Bindery. Cockerell, also, through his writings as well as his bindings, has had a considerable influence on the craft. English bookbinding fell on hard times between 1920 and the Second World War, not in small part because of book collectors' desire to have their books in original mint condition (including book jacket), a desire which persists to this day. The fine binder had but little opportunity to apply modern concepts of design to modern books. Bookbinding following the war was given considerable impetus by the efforts of EDGAR MANSFIELD in design and ROGER POWELL in construction. The teaching of Mansfield, which commenced at the (then) London School of Printing in 1948, has influenced, at least to some degree, the concepts of design of virtually all contemporary English and American bookbinders. (71, 89, 94, 157, 200, 202, 225, 236, 242, 243, 252, 270, 271) Operations. There is a reasonably well-marked distinction between that part of the bookbinding trade dealing with books meant to be read, known as letterpress (from the time when all books were printed by letterpress), and those intended to be written in, called stationery binding. Each of these may again be divided into four groups, according to the particular class of binding involved: Letterpress binding 1. Extra leather binding, i.e., hand binding 2. Library binding 3. Edition (or publisher's) binding 4. Miscellaneous binding, e.g., pamphlet binding Stationery binding 1. Blankbook (account-book) binding 2. Manifold binding 3. Exercise and notebook binding 4. General office and stationery binding, e.g., checkbook binding. The operations of bookbinding begin with the folding of the sheets into sections (or signatures) and conclude, in library and edition binding, with casing-in; and in hand binding, with the pasting down of the board papers. The finishing of a hand-bound book, while also a part of bookbinding, is generally considered to be artistic work. In a very general sense, the operations may be divided into three very broad categories: the steps involved in preparation for binding, FORWARDING, and finally, FINISHING (1). Preparation includes all the operations up to and including folding, most of which are actually the work of the printer and not the bookbinder. (See: BINDERY WAREHOUSE. ) Forwarding, as the name connotes, carries the book up to covering and pasting down (or casing-in), as well as edge gilding, marbling, etc. Finishing includes lettering and any decoration. Since edition and library bindings are blocked (lettered and/or decorated) before being cased, forwarding and finishing are somewhat intermingled. The sequence of operations followed by the bookbinder or bindery from the time the sheets (in edition binding and occasionally hand binding) or books and/or periodical issues (library binding and hand binding) are received to final inspection are as follows: NOTE: B refers to blankbook binding, E to edition binding, H to hand binding, and L to library binding. B E H L x x Entering record x x x Folding (only occasionally in hand binding) x Sorting to remove incorrectly or poorly ruled sheets x x x Gathering (only in hand binding if sheets have to be folded; in edition binding, gathering sometimes follows the tipping on of endpapers) x x Collating x Removing spine folds for oversewing or adhesive binding) x x Pulling (in preparation for resewing through the folds) x x Knocking out the old backing ridge (if required) x x Mending, guarding, general repairs, etc. x x Guarding plates, refolding maps, making stubs, etc. x x x Pressing (bundling) x x x x Making joints for blankbooks, or endpapers for others x Guarding first and last three folios (sections) x x x Marking and preparing for sewing x x x x Sewing and attaching endpapers or joints x Nipping or smashing x Fraying cords x x x x Gluing up the spine x x x x Trimming (See alternative hand binding method, below) x Cutting fore edge out of boards x x x x Rounding x x x Backing x Cleaning off spine and drying x Clothings x Making tongue x x Lining spine x Cutting head and tail out of boards x x Cutting and preparing boards x Paring and slotting tongue x x Case-making x x Cutting leather x Making spring-back (may be done in batches in advance) x Attaching spring-back (and levers) x x Making plate or casting type for blocking x x Blocking case x x Attaching boards x Trimming ends of spring-back x x Paring leather x x Covering x x Trimming margin of turn-ins x Siding x x Casing-in and/or building-in x x Pasting down board papers x x Pressing x Cutting index x Numbering (occasionally follows folding) x x Decorating and/or lettering x x Cleaning off x Jacketing There are four basic characteristics of a well-bound (modern) book: flexibility, durability, solidity, and accuracy. Flexibility is a characteristic of the spine of the book which allows the book to open freely with minimum strain on the structure. The factors affecting flexibility include the method of sewing (or otherwise joining the leaves or sections), the grain direction of the paper, the presence of tipped-in plates, the characteristics of the paper, the lining of the spine, rounding and backing, and finally, the materials and techniques used in covering the book. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; OVERSEWING; ADHESIVE BINDING; MACHINE DIRECTION; PAPER; SPINE LINING; HOLLOW BACK; TIGHT BACK. Durability is a characteristic of a binding which enables it to withstand flexing, abrasion, impact, tearing, and staining or soiling. It is built into a binding in certain places, but particularly in the sewing, attachment of the endpapers, rounding and backing, the lining of the spine, and the attachment of the boards (in hand binding), or casing-in or building-in (in edition and library binding). Inferior materials, and especially inferior adhesives, spine linings, endpapers and covering materials will adversely affect durability. See: ROUNDING; BACKING; ENDPAPERS; LACING-IN; CASING-IN. Solidity is a characteristic a book displays when it has the appearance of a compact entity, lies flat when closed, and is loosely jointed at the spine. Good pressing (or casing-in), gluing, and especially good rounding and backing, are essential, as also is the use of boards of a suitable weight. Accuracy is a somewhat vague term, but is manifest in the ability of the book to stand vertically without leaning or falling over. This is accomplished by square trimming, proper attachment of the boards (or case-making and casing-in), and square cutting of the boards. (56, 57, 89, 92, 100, 115, 126, 135, 152, 170, 236, 279, 280, 320, 335, 343, 371, 372)
book blocks
Flat, smooth boards of varying lengths and thicknesses, with one end shaped to fit the spine of a rounded book, and used to support the cover while pasting down the board paper or leather joint, and also when tooling the turn-ins or doublure. The block prevents strain at the joint of the book.
book cloth
A generic term for the woven fabrics used in covering books. They are usually, but by no means always, woven cotton fabrics, which may be bleached or mercerized, dyed, filled with pigment colors, gelatinized, starched, coated or impregnated, calendered, and embossed (grained). They are divided into classes according to type and quality. Specifications for the fabrics used for book cloths are: Book Cloths (starch-filled and impregnated) Group Weight A Light B Medium C Heavy C-1 Heavy Buckrams (starch-filled and impregnated) Group Weight D Light E Medium F Heavy The specific (minimum) requirements for these fabrics are as follows below: Group Stripped-cloth Warp plus filling Breakings strength Breaking weight—not threads per inch— sum (warp plus strength— less than: not less than: filling—not not less less than: than: Pounds Pounds Ounces/square yard Warp Filling A 1.7 92 60 38 15 B 2.1 104 77 50 20 C 3.4 104 105 55 42 C-1 4.2 94 120 64 48 D 4.7 58 110 65 35 E 6.0 106 165 100 55 F 7.9 110 200 120 70 The breaking strength sum for embossed cloths has been established as 25% less than the figure for cloths that are not embossed. Pyroxylin treated fabrics, which were introduced in about 1910, represented a major breakthrough in book cloth. The term "pyroxylin treated," as applied to book cloths, means either pyroxylin coated or pyroxylin impregnated cotton fabrics. The difference between the two is the quantity of protective coating applied and the manner of application, as well as the type of material treated. The pyroxylin composition consists of gelatinized nitrocellulose, a plasticizer to impart softness and flexibility, coloring matter, and a solvent. The fabrics used for impregnation are lightweight muslins, while those used for coating are heavier drills, twills, and sheeting. Coated fabrics are sometimes embossed in imitation of leather. The surface of impregnated fabrics retain the texture of the base materials. Pyroxylin impregnated fabrics are superior to starch-filled fabrics because their surfaces are more water resistant, they are more resistant to insects and fungi, and are generally stronger. They wear well and are particularly suitable for use in library binding. Pyroxylin coated fabrics are used extensively in edition binding because of the decorative effects obtainable. They, too, are water repellant and immune to insect attack and fungi, but they do not wear as well as impregnated cloths because of cracking at the joints and occasional peeling of the coating. Book cloths for cheaper editions are closely woven, lightweight, starch-filled cotton fabrics, sometimes lightly embossed to conceal the weave of the fabric. They are generally attractive but have little strength or durability. They are also vulnerable to water spotting and soiling, and cannot be wiped clean. In addition, they are generally unsuitable for printing by offset lithography. The book cloth used in library binding is generally of two types, pyroxylin impregnated and starch filled. The Library Binding Institute specifications for impregnated cloth, i.e., buckram, call for a base fabric of cotton, the warp yarns of which are to be woven in pairs, and with specifications the same as for group F, above. In addition, the Institute requires that the dye used must penetrate through the fabric so that both sides will be covered equally prior to the application of the impregnating compound (except in the case of "linen" type finishes). The impregnating compound must be uniform and homogeneous and be of either the nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate type. The weight of the impregnating compound must constitute at least 10% of the total weight of the finished fabric and must contain no oxidizable oils. The plasticizer, including oil (if any), must not exceed 20% by weight of the impregnating compound, nor must the weight of the pigment exceed 25% of the compound. Residual solvents, if any, are not to exceed 0.01% by weight of the finished fabric, and the pH of the cloth, as measured by standard methods, is not to be less than 6.5 nor more than 7.5, except in the case of the use of acid dyes, in which case the pH must not be less than 6.0. Cloth specifications state that the finished cloth shall be sufficiently water resistant to permit no penetration of water within a period of ten minutes, as determined by the ring test. The finished cloth is to be sufficiently grease resistant to permit no penetration of oleic acid within a period of five minutes, as determined by the ring test. The finished cloth must be capable of adhering permanently to boards and board papers under normal processing using either an animal glue or a resinous adhesive, and must resist rub-off to the degree that loss by abrasion shall not exceed 8% by weight of the fabric, when subjected to abrasion for 10 minutes by flint paper (2/0), on a disc 2 inches in diameter rotating at 1,250 rpm under 3 pounds of pressure. The finished cloth is to be free of marked odor, and its fastness to light shall be such that it will not lose color or fade when subjected to fadeometer exposure for 15 hours. Cloth as a covering material for books is said to have been introduced, in England, by William Pickering, possibly as early as 1821-23, although books bound in burlap go back to the 1760s. Pickering's cloth was calico, a soft clothing material which disintegrated in the presence of glue unless it was lined with paper. ARCHIBALD LEIGHTON is generally credited with being the first to introduce a really durable cloth for covering books. The first true book cloth was a dyed and glazed calico, prepared with a starch filler to make it resistant to the moisture in glue. The first cloth had little character and was aesthetically unpleasant. It was also without natural texture and the threads gave it a somewhat raw and unfinished appearance. What was needed was some sort of decoration which would make the threads less obvious. When this came about, it took the form of embossed grains worked on the material, either in the roll or piece. One of the earliest designs, introduced in 1831, was a water finish, which may have been an outgrowth of the watered silk patterns that were introduced in 1828; it was used only for a short period because of its high cost and poor durability. See also: CLOTH GRAINING. For several years following the introduction of cloth, it was the usual practice of binders to buy the cloth in its basic white color, and then have it dyed, filled, and otherwise prepared for use, or to dye and finish it themselves. Embossing was done at first by means of ribbon embossers, but this was expensive, and the larger binderies did their own embossing by means of manually operated, heated rollers. By the 1840s, however, the complete manufacture of finished book cloth had become a separate business. Notwithstanding its obvious advantages, it was not until the middle of the 19th century that cloth largely replaced paper in regular edition binding. The rapid increase in the use of cloth was largely due to the successful methods that were developed of blocking in gold on cloth-covered cases. It was then possible to give cloth bindings a finished appearance which enabled them to be compared favorably with hand-tooled leather and, therefore, acceptable as a permanent binding. (71, 89, 147, 187, 188, 209, 236, 264, 286, 326, 341)
book conservation
See: CONSERVATION; RESTORATION.
book corners
Protective caps for the corners of book covers, sometimes made of leather, but also of metal or the same material that covers the book. Also called "corners." See also: BOSSES.
book covers
A protective cover or CHEMISE of soft leather, such as DOESKIN (1), or, in the case of blankbooks, a material such as canvas, sewn or slipped over a leather-covered book for protection against abrasion, moisture, light, etc. Soft leather covers were common in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, and canvas or cloth slip-on covers are still being used for blankbooks. (115)
book crafts
The operations that are carried out in the production of books, including papermaking, printing, design of books, design and production of illustrations, and bookbinding. (335)
book-drill
1. A linen cloth used to reinforce endpapers. This type of reinforcement is sometimes required because opening the cover, particularly in the case of side sewn books which have little flexibility, strains the sewing and will eventually cause the endpaper to break away unless it is reinforced. 2. A high-speed electric drill used for producing holes of a very small diameter through the paper of books to be overcast but not resewn. A similar drill, usually in a press, is used to drill holes completely through the leaves of a book that is to be side sewn.
book forming and pressing machine
A machine used in edition binding which applies heat and pressure by means of "creasers" to shape the spine of the text block. Such a machine is generally designed to be used in conjunction with a CASING-IN MACHINE. See also: BUILDING-IN MACHINE. (320)
book jacket
A wrapper originally used to protect the covering material of the book from soiling or other damage, but now also used for promotional purposes. It may be plain, printed, or illustrated, and is flush with the covers of the book at head and tail, but folded over the fore edge of both covers. It is usually detachable. Modern book jackets are often very elaborately designed and are frequently printed in color. The book jacket, in one form or another, can be traced back to the 16th century. Also called "book wrapper," "dust cover," "dust jacket," "dust wrapper," "jacket," and "wrapper." (12, 156, 252)
book jacketing machine
A machine which automatically places jackets on newly bound edition bindings. The majority of such machines can jacket books up to a maximum of 10 by 8 by 2 inches, generally at speeds up to 35 books or more per minute. (343)
book label
A simple printed or engraved name ticket (usually paper but sometimes leather), stuck to the inside of the upper cover or one of the front flyleaves of a book, generally for purposes of identification or ownership. A more elaborate label is known as a BOOKPLATE. (69)
booklet
A small book. The term "booklet," like PAMPHLET, has been defined in a number of ways, including: 1) an affected term for a short book or pamphlet; 2) a small book, commonly bound in paper and generally used for advertising purposes; 3) a small book containing up to but not more than 24 pages, which is sufficient for classification as larger than a pamphlet; 4) a stitched pamphlet of eight or more pages, usually with a cover, and small enough to be carried in one's pocket; 5) a publication containing more pages than a pamphlet but fewer than a book and which may have a paper, limp, or stiff cover; 6) any pamphlet that is sewn or stitched but not permanently bound; and 7) a paper-covered publication in book format ranging in size from a few pages to a small-scale edition of a book. (139, 142, 256, 316)
book lice
See notes on the electronic edition Very small wingless insects of the order Corrodentia, usually of the family Atropidae, that will attack paper and book materials, and appear capable of living on mold and mildew. Also called "deathwatch." See also: BOOKWORMS.
bookmark
1. See: REGISTER. 2. Any printed or woven paper or other material, an inch or 2 wide and usually 4 or more inches in length, used in marking a place in a closed book for future reference. Bookmarks are frequently decorative, carrying advertisements or commemorative illustrations.
book papers
A class or group of cultural papers which have in common characteristics that, in general, make them suitable for the graphic arts. The various characteristics are designed to meet the requirements of the method of printing and the end use of the publication produced. Book papers are produced from rag pulps, mechanical and chemical wood pulps, esparto pulp, cotton fiber pulps, reclaimed paper stock, or combinations of different pulps. Mineral fillers, sizing, coloring matter, or other materials are added to the pulp in whatever combination is needed to give the appearance, strength, opacity, brightness, printability, permanence, etc., to fit the immediate or end use of the paper. The bulk of this type of paper is produced on a conventional FOURDRINIER MACHINE and is machine dried; however, some book papers are made on cylinder and hand molds. Uncoated book papers are used in the printing of periodicals, books, pamphlets, and the like, and are converted into other products such as tablets, ledger paper, etc. They are generally made on a Fourdrinier machine and may or may not be surface sized. They are made to various bulk specifications and in a variety of finishes, including antique, eggshell, machine, English, a:nd super-calendered, as well as in special or fancy finishes. Uncoated papers are made in basis weights 30 to 150 pounds (25 X 38—500), the most common weights being 30 to 70 pounds. Coated papers are used in the printing of periodicals, books, pamphlets, etc., where the use of fine halftone illustrations may be required. They are well sized and possess good tearing strength. The base papers are coated with white mineral pigments mixed with adhesives such as casein, starch, latex, resin, or glue, either on the papermaking machine as part of the manufacturing process or as a separate operation subsequent to the manufacture of the base paper. Waxes or soaps may also be added to the coating mixtures to add to the finish and feel of the paper. The mineral pigments employed include clay, satin white, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfite, and titanium oxide, which may be applied as such or in mixtures, the selection of the combination used being determined by the effect required. The adhesives and the amounts used are selected according to the surface strength of the coating md its resistance to moisture and vehicles used in the printing inks. Coated papers may be coated on one or both sides with a single or double coating. Virtually all are supercalendered, with finishes ranging from a dull matte to a high gloss. The basis weights for these papers range from 30 to 150 pounds (25 X 38—500), with 40 to 80 pounds being most common. Coated papers usually have a brighter color, greater opacity, and a higher finish than uncoated book papers. (17, 36, 40, 63, 78, 323, 346, 366)
bookplate
A label, usually printed or engraved, frequently with a distinctive design, identifying the owner of a book, and usually pasted or tipped to the inside of the upper cover. Bookplates may be simple to the point of giving only the name of the library or other owner (sometimes with the expression "ex libris" included), or very elaborately designed, frequently with heraldic emblems or insignia. The use of the bookplate can he dated back to at least as early as 1516, but in England, France, and Germany they did not become popular until the 18th century. There was a tremendous revival in their use and study in the 1890s, and again since about 1965. During both periods collectors have formed societies, produced journals and publications, and actually commissioned many bookplates for their own sake, that is, not necessarily intended for use in books, but rather for exchange with other collectors. Over the years many eminent engravers have designed bookplates, and among the examples still extant are a great number which were executed with considerable skill. Because of the relative scarcity of engravers in America before 1800, bookplates were rare before that time; however, since about 1840, they have been fairly common in this country. Their use in libraries is quite common today, but in some institutions, largely for reasons of economy, the bookplate has been replaced by a rubber stamp. (69, 200)
book pocket
A receptacle of stiff paper, cloth, buckram, leather, or an ordinary envelope, pasted on the inside of a book usually the lower cover to hold loose material, maps, charts, user cards, etc. Some book pockets, such as those found in many English (as well as Continental) almanacs from the late 17th to the early 18th centuries, have concertina (expansion) folds at head and tail and open at the fore edge. Sometimes a COMPENSATION GUARD is required to provide for the thickness of the material in the pocket. The opening of the typical pocket is at the head, or less often, at the binding edge. (12)
book repairer
The so-called one man bookbinder or repairer, an itinerant bookbinder who offers to bind, rebind, restore and/or clean books in a library, generally quickly and at low cost. Book repairers are not nearly so numerous as they were in the past; however, they still exist, and probably many thousands of books have been "restored," some well and some poorly, by these itinerant bookbinders. (131)
book rest
A device designed to hold a book in position during the tooling of the area where the spine curves around onto the sides. Its advantage is that it provides a better angle at which to work, as well as better sighting. The sloping sides of a FINISHING PRESS are also used for the same purpose. (130)
book sander
A machine used in library binderies to remove the spine folds of a book having binding margins so narrow that the folds cannot be trimmed away in a cutting machine. Modern sanders can be adjusted to remove as little as 1/32 inch. The sander is also preferred by many library binders because it is faster than a cutting machine. (164)
books in sheets
"Books" as received by the binder in flat (unfolded) sheets, which must be folded, gathered and collated, and which must then have any maps, illustrations, etc., inserted before the actual binding processes. The sheets are sometimes identified by a SIGNATURE (1), which may be either a letter and/or number, and in the case of sets may include the volume number, printed at the tail margin (in the direction line) of the first, and occasionally on succeeding pages of each. Before the rise of edition binding most publications were delivered to the bookseller in sheets, to be bound to the customer's order. "Books in sheets" today is almost exclusively a term restricted to edition binding. (83, 335)
book sizes
The dimensions of books, as measured, in inches, centimeters, or millimeters, from head to tail and from spine to fore edges of the cover. The descriptions given to book sizes are based on a still currently used system that involves using the size of a leaf as a fraction of the folded sheet on which it was printed. With reference to the printing of books, an even number of leaves always results when a sheet is folded, i.e., 2, 4, 8, 16, etc., resulting in printed pages on each side of the leaf, i.e., 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. Except for the largest size, the FOLIO (1), the name of the size indicates the fractional part of the sheet one leaf occupies, e.g., quarto (2 folds, 4 leaves, 8 pages), 1/4 Of the sheet; octavo (3 folds, 8 leaves, 16 pages), 1/8 of the sheet, etc. In this system, since books are printed from different sizes of sheets (See: BOOK BASIS), the fractional designation by itself cannot denote an exact size; therefore it is a common practice to give the name of the sheet before the fractional name, e.g., royal octavo, which is an octavo 1/8 the size of a sheet 20 X 25 inches or, excluding the SQUARES, a book 10 x 6 1/4 inches (before trimming). Paper is cut to so many sizes, however, that the terms crown, royal, post, etc., unless qualified, are practically meaningless. See: SIZES OF PAPER. Untrimmed sizes for three commonly used sheet sizes are given below. The customary trim of 1/8 inch at head and tail will reduce the height of the text block by 1/4 inch; however, the size of the bound book. assuming 1/8 inch squares will make the height of the book the same as the sizes given. It should be mentioned that not all sheet sizes given are folded to produce books of the very small size indicated. All folds, following the first, are right-angle folds. The common book-trade designation of sizes was originally related to a sheet of handmade paper measuring 19 X 25 inches, which was the common size of the papermaking mold. When folded to 8 leaves, or 16 pages, and trimmed, each was 6 1/2 X 9 1/4 inches, approximately, and was the standard dimension of an 8vo. When folded to make 16 leaves, or 32 pages, it was a 16 mo. With the present great variety of paper sizes, all dimensions are by necessity only approximate. (52, 69, 140, 156, 169) Book sizes Size Name Times Leaves Pages Size of Untrimmed (in inches) Folded per Sheet per Sheet Page (leaf) 25 by 38 folio 1 2 4 25 by 19 25 by 38 quarto 2 4 8 19 by 12 1/2 25 by 38 octavo 3 8 16 12 1/2 by 9 1/2 25 by 38 sixteenmo 4 16 32 9 1/2 by 6 1/4 25 by 38 thirty-twomo 5 32 64 6 1/4 by 4 3/4 25 by 38 sixty-fourmo 6 64 18 4 3/4 by 3 1/8 20 by 25 folio 2 4 20 by 12 1/2 20 by 25 quarto 2 4 8 12 1/2 by 10 20 by 25 Octavo 3 8 16 10 by 6 1/4 20 by 25 sixteenmo 4 16 32 6 1/4 by 5 20 by 25 thirty-twomo s 32 64 2 1/2 by 3 1/8 20 by 25 sixty-fourmo 6 64 128 3 1/8 by 2 1/2 18 by 23 folio 2 4 18 by 11 1/2 18 by 23 quarto 2 4 8 11 1/2 by 9 18 by 23 octavo 3 8 16 9 by 5 3/4 18 by 23 sixteenmo 4 16 32 5 3/4 by 4 1/2 18 by 23 thirty-twomo 5 32 64 4 1/2 by 2 7/8 18 by 23 sixty-fourmo 6 64 128 2 7/8 by 2 1/4 Size names and their equivalents Old Name Modern Name Abbreviation Symbol folio folio fo or f quarto quarto 4to 4° sexto sixmo 6to or 6mo 6° octavo octavo 8mo or 8vo 8° duodecimo twelvemo 12mo 12° sextodecimo sixteenmo 16mo 16° octodecimo eighteenmo 18mo 18° vincestmo-quartO twenty-fourmo 24mo 24° vegisemo-quarto twenty-fourmo 24mo 24° trigesimo-decundo thirty-twomo 32mo 32° quadragesimo-octavo forty-eightmo 48mo 48° sexagesimo-quarto sixty-fourmo 64mo 64° British book sizes Size Name Octavo Size Quarto Size pott 6 1/4 by 4 8 by 6 1/4 foolscap 6 3/4 by 4 1/4 8 1/4 by 6 3/4 crown 7 1/2 by 5 1O by 7 1/2 large crown 8 by 5 1/4 10 1/2 by 8 large post 8 1/4 by 5 1/4 10 1/4 by 8 1/4 demy 8 3/4 by 5 5/8 11 1/4 by 8 3/4 post 8 by 5 10 by 8 small demy 8 1/2 by 5 5/8 11 1/4 by 8 1/2 medium 9 by 5 3/4 11 1/2 by 9 small royal 9 1/4 by 6 1/8 12 1/4 by 9 1/4 royal 10 by 6 1/4 12 1/2 by 10 super royal 10 1/4 by 6 3/4 13 1/2 by 10 1/4 imperial 11 by 7 1/2 15 by 11
books of permanent interest
A category established by Douglas Cockerell shortly after the turn of the century in an effort to categorize the time, effort and funds to be expended in binding books of an "intermediate" nature—i.e., hooks of permanent scholarly, historical, etc., interest, but of relatively little monetary or esthetic interest, which should be solidly and well bound, but for which the most expensive work would be inappropriate. In Cockerell's day, this category of books was bound by hand, sewn with linen thread around cotton or linen tapes, which were secured between split boards (when the books were large and heavy), and covered with strong cloth or the most durable leather, or a combination of the two, e.g., quarter or half bindings. In greatly modified form, the Library Binding Institute has continued to define this category of books. See: PERMANENT MATERIALS. See also: BOOKS OF TEMPORARY INTEREST; BOOKS OF VALUE. (83)
books of temporary interest
Books that must be bound and kept clean and usable for only occasional use. This category assumes that the handling such hooks receive and the storage area of the library will suffice for less than a full and "permanent" binding, which is often not the case. See also: BOOKS OF PERMANENT INTEREST.
books of value
Books that are valuable and/or rare, which may or may not have any special scholarly value, or books of special interest to a particular library, and which are bound in the best manner and with the best materials. See also: BOOKS OF PERMANENT INTEREST.
book support
A wood or metal device generally placed to the right side of a row of books on a shelf to support and maintain them in a vertical position. Book supports are available in several forms: 1) the spring type, which hangs from the ribbed shelf above (but which sometimes does not reach down to the smaller books); 2) the metal support, with a stamped-out metal tongue that slips under the first few books; it rests on the same shelf as the books to be supported, and should be flanged to prevent it from "spearing" or otherwise damaging the books; 3) the type that locks into the ribbed shelf on which the books rest, and which can be difficult to slide if the locking key becomes twisted; 4) the magnetic support, which is usable only on ferrous metal shelves; and 5) wooden supports, some of which are very elaborate and are generally used to support more valuable books, or books in specially designated areas. The better book supports have a felt- or cork-covered base, especially for use on wooden shelves, and, for valuable books, a felt- or cork-covered face. The typical metal support is generally available in two sizes—regular, about 6 inches tall, and oversize, about 9 inches tall.
book wall
The arrangement in a double-sided case of one or more sets of books displaying the upper and lower covers of craft bookbindings where comprehensive designs flow across adjacent surfaces to create a unified image. The book wall is the creation of the contemporary English bookbinder PHILIP SMITH. (311)
bookworms
The larva of any of some 160 species of beetles. The mature female insect lays her eggs on the edges of books, or in the crevices of bookshelves, and the larvae, when hatched. burrow into the books, or shelves, riddling them with tiny tunnels. Various bookworms, as they are mistakenly called, have been identified, or supposedly identified, among which are: Anobium domesticum, A. eruditus, A. Paniceum, A. pertinax, A. punctatum, and A. striatum; Acarus cheyletus and A. eruditus; Dermestes lardarius; Aecophora pseudospretella; Sitodrepa paniceum; Attagenus pellio; Lepisma saccharina; Ptinus fur; Antherenus varius; Lyctus brunneus; Catorama mexicana; and Rhizopertha dominica. Of the types, the most notorious and destructive are: Sitodrepa paniceum, the drugstore beetle, the female of which is capable of producing as many as 800,000 descendants in a year; Lyctus brunneus, the powder-post beetle, which consumes wooden bookshelves and cases, packing the holes with a flourlike debris, so that nothing substantial remains of the shelf; Ptinus f ur, the spider beetle, first mentioned by Linnaeus in 1766, which can cause severe damage to books, papers, and leather if left undisturbed for long periods of time; Anobium punctatum, the common furniture beetle, the larvae of which bore long cylindrical holes in books and bookshelves; Catorama mexicana, the Mexican book beetle; Dermestes lardarius, the larder beetle, which prefers cheese, ham, etc., but which will devour leather if nothing else is available; and Rhizopertha dominica, which has caused extensive damage in libraries. Most of these so-called bookworms are small and dark- or reddish-brown. They enter libraries through windows, poorly fitting doors, etc., and seem to proliferate in libraries where dust, dirt, heat, darkness, and poor ventilation are prevalent. The measures used over the years for the control or elimination of bookworms are virtually legion, including numerous remedies to be rubbed into leather, added to paste, sprinkled on bookshelves and books, etc. Among the many remedies used are: alum and thymol, alum and vitriol (sulfuric acid), (oil of) anis, beeswax, benzene, bitumen, borax, buckbean, cajeput oil, camphor, chili, chloropicrin, cinchona, cinnamon, cloves and oil of cloves, colcynth, copal varnish, copper, cresote, derris, (oil of) eucalyptus, formalin (formaldehyde), kerosine, khuskhus, lac varnish, lavender, margosia, mercuric chloride, mirbane oil, nitrobenzene, muriatic (hydrochloric) acid, musk, myrrh, naphthalene, nicotine, orrisroot oil, ozone, pennyroyal, pepper, petroleum, phenol, porpoise oil, pyrethrum powder, Russia leather shavings, sandalwood, sassafras, shellac, snuff, thyme, thymol, turpentine. vermouth, and wormwood. Some of these remedies were totally ineffective: some were temporarily effective; and some were as destructive as, or even more so than, the pests themselves. Any preparation or process used to destroy the larvae or beetles must have sufficient residual effect not only to destroy existing larvae but also larvae which will hatch subsequent to the initial treatment. Treatment should be applied in conjunction with proper ventilation, temperature and humidity control, and cleanliness, so as to discourage future infestation. Fumigation is frequently used to rid libraries of beetle and larvae infestation. Four general methods are used: 1) fumigation of the entire library with hydrogen cyanide, carbon disulfide, or methyl bromide, which, of course, necessitates closing the library for several days; 2) fumigation of batches of books in specially designed vacuum chambers, with a combination (1:9 by weight) of ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide, which is a method well suited to the fumigation of new acquisitions; 3) routine fumigation of the entire collection, carried out batchwise in a chamber, using methyl bromide; and 4) fumigation of one or more books in a small air-tight box, using paradichloro-benzene crystals, which is a method suitable for use by the private collector. Although the first method is potentially dangerous and causes considerable inconvenience, it is the only one which will destroy beetles or larvae which are on the bookshelves. See also: BOOK LICE; SILVERFISH. (47, 143, 247, 335)
book wrapper
See: BOOK JACKET
boomer press
A now obsolete modified form of the STANDING PRESS. The power of the boomer press was obtained by a combination of four levers working on toggle joints, through which passed a right and left hand screw. The rotation of these screws caused the pressing surfaces to approach or move apart with a uniform motion, according to the direction of the rotation. This press had several advantages over the regular standing press, including: 1) once the pressure was applied it did not release slightly as the ordinary press is likely to do, so that the material under pressure remained under full pressure, and could, therefore, be pressed in somewhat less time; and 2) the enormous pressure it was capable of exerting. (8, 97)
border
1. An ornamental design in a repeat pattern in blind or gold around the edges of the covers of a book, frequently enclosing one or more center pieces of a different design. 2. An ornamental design along one or more sides of a page of an illuminated manuscript or of the body of printed matter, or surrounding an illuminated miniature.
boric acid
A weak, volatile acid (H3BO3), obtained naturally, or by treating borax with a mineral acid. It is used to thicken and preserve adhesives made of GUM ARABIC. (142)
Borneo cutch
See: ACACIA.
bosses
Brass or other metal knobs, studs, SHOES, or ornamentation fastened to the cover of a book for ornamental value or to prevent the leather from being scratched or otherwise marred. Bosses originally were attached to books that were meant to lie on a lectern and not stand on bookshelves. Not all books were provided with them, and they were more common in Germany than elsewhere. There was usually one boss at each corner of both covers and another in the middle of each cover, or ten in all, although the center bosses were sometimes left off. It is commonly assumed that the use of bosses declined with the advent of printing from movable metal type, the proliferation of books, and vertical shelving in cupboards and book stacks. In addition, the relative increase in the use of pasteboard instead of wooden boards also reduced the use of bosses, although in Germany, where wooden boards were still common in the 16th century, they continued to be used more often than elsewhere. Today, books with bosses are frequently kept in boxes so as to prevent damage to adjacent books on the shelves. See also: ROLLER SHOES. See PLATE 1. (69, 83, 236)
bottle rubber
See: GOLD RUBBER.
bottom color
The base color applied to a leather and then corrected to the desired shade by the application of succeeding colors during the finishing process. In SUEDE LEATHER, however, the bottom color is the final shade. (164, 248)
bottom combs
See: MARBLING COMBS.
bottom edge
See: LOWER EDGE.
bottom split
The innermost layer of a split cowhide. Because they are relatively thick, cowhides are generally split into at least two layers (and sometimes three) if they are to be used as a "light" leather. If split once, the two layers are the grain and flesh splits; if split twice, the layers are the grain, middle, and bottom split. When processed into leather the bottom split is called a BUFFING (1). (363)
bouilly
See: CUIR-BOUILLI. bound flexible. A term sometimes used to indicate a book that has been sewn on single or double raised cords, the slips of which have been laced into the boards. See also: FLEXIBLE SEWING; LACING-IN. (115)
bound in
An insert which has been sewn in with the sections of a book. See also: BIND IN. (131)
bouquet marble
A drawn marble pattern formed in the manner of small flowers side by side and used mainly for marbled endpapers. The bouquet is generally produced from two or three shades of brown and one throwing of black. After the colors have been dropped on, drawn with a stylus and combed in the usual manner, a rake is drawn through the colors right and left across the entire surface of the size in such a manner that the teeth of the second row trace exactly through the pattern left by the teeth of the first row. A somewhat different pattern is produced by treating the colors in the same manner but omitting the marbling comb and spreading the drops of color only with a stylus into very narrow cross lines followed by raking. (151, 327)
box
1. A container for maps, bundles of loose sheets, samples of materials, disintegrating books, etc., that may be open at one end or completely closed in. See also: CUT CORNER PAMPHLET FILE; PAMPHLET BOX; PRINCETON FILE; PULL-OFF BOX; SLIPCASE; SOLANDER BOX. 2. A leather "marble" consisting of marbling water thrown on in small drops, followed by small spots of brown and black. Additional marbling water is then thrown on in large drops, followed by small spots of blue sprinkled on. When all is dry, scarlet and two or three coats of orange are sprinkled on. The leather is bent and twisted in several places during the course of applying the colors and water to form veins. 3. A surface pattern in leather, usually black calfskin, consisting of fine, box-shaped creases formed by BOARDING (1) the skin in two directions, head to tail and belly to belly. See also: WILLOW (2) 4. The trough-like receptacles on a folding machine into which the folded sections drop. 5. One of the magazines of a gathering machine. (66, 152, 339, 363)
box pocket
A stiffened three-dimensional BOOK POCKET.
box side
A cowhide cut in half down the backbone, full chrome, semi-chrome, or vegetable tanned, and usually colored black. It has a grain pattern of fine box-shaped creases formed by BOARDING (1) in two directions. head to tail and belly to belly. When colored it is usually called WILLOW SIDE. (61)
bradawl
An AWL with a chisel edge used for piercing holes in boards in preparation for LACING-IN. (133)
Bradel binding
A type of binding having a hollow back, and not unlike a library binding, except that it is considered to be temporary. The style was originated in Germany by Alexis Pierre Bradel, also known as Bradel l'ainé, and also as Bradel-Derome, son-in-law and successor to Nicholas-Denis Derôme. The style was taken to France sometime between 1772 and 1809. Bradel bindings generally have split boards into which are attached the extensions of the spine lining cloth. The edges are uncut, sometimes with the head edge being gilt. They generally have a leather or linen spine. In France the style was known as "Cartonnage à la Bradel," or as "en gist." See also: LESNÉ, FRANÇOIS A.D. (347)
Braille book
Braille binding
A book printed by the Braille process, i.e., the dampened paper is embossed with codes of raised dots. Braille books are bound much like other books except that they are generally liberally stubbed and they are not pressed after casing-in, as the pressure would flatten the raised characters.
Braille printing paper
Paper used in the Braille printing process. It is usually produced from a high quality chemical wood pulp in basis weights of 32 to 36 pounds (17 X 22 - 500). Significant properties required include a smooth surface, good elongation, and high tensile strength. (17)
branding
1. A method of marking a book with hot irons that burn letters or symbols into one or more edges, generally for purposes of indicating ownership. Branding was most often employed in Mexico, and was initiated in the early 17th century by the monks in charge of convent libraries. Brands of iron or bronze were used, usually on the head edge, although it was sometimes done on the fore edge and occasionally on both head and tail edges. Unfortunately, the process often damaged the covers, title pages, and endpapers; however. as a mark of ownership, it was effective in deterring the theft of books, as the brand could only be removed by trimming deep into the margins. 2. The process of rolling a FLESHER or SHEEPSKIN with hot rolls for the purpose of smoothing the skin. (115, 264, 274)
brashiness
The relative inflexibility of the cast film of a dry animal glue. The term also refers to brittleness of an adhesive resulting from drying, plasticizer migration, and the like. (222)
brass boarded
A leather, usually a cowhide BUFFING (1), that has been boarded by hand or grained with a faint parallel line effect. (256)
brass boards
brass bound bounds
See: BACKING BOARDS; CASING-IN BOARDS.
brayer
1. An old term for a pestle with which ink was spread before being applied to a printing surface. Made of wood, it was round, flat at one end, and had a handle at the other end. 2. A printer's hand inking roller, also used in making BRAYER PRINTS.
brayer prints
Decorative endpapers and cover prints produced by rolling an inked brayer over paper under which flat objects, such as leaves, ferns, etc., have been placed. Alternative methods are to ink the objects and press the paper on them with a clean brayer, or to roll the inked brayer over the paper and then place objects underneath and roll with an ink of a different color. (183)
Brazil wood
The heavy wood of any of the tropical trees, family Leguminosae, which yield a red, water-soluble dye, brazilin (C16H14O5) which at one time was used to produced coloring materials used both in marbling and in dyeing leather. Brazil wood dyes have been largely superceded by the synthetic dyestuffs.
bread crumbs
The particles of ordinary crustless bread, used by some restorers to remove loose dust from maps, charts. etc., and for dry cleaning the leaves of books. (173)
break
1. The parting of adjacent sections of a book due to failure of the sewing. See also: START. 2. A crack in the gold or foil BLOCKING or tooling of a book. 3. In papermaking, a complete separation of the web of paper, either on or off the machine. 4. In leather manufacture, the minute wrinkles formed when the grain surface of leather is bent so that its grain side is sharply concave. If the wrinkles formed are very fine. and there are many of them to the linear inch, the leather is said to have a fine break, whereas if they are large and there are relatively few to the linear inch, the leather is said to have a coarse break. A very important aspect of the "break" in leather is that when the leather is flexed to cause the break to appear, it should disappear once the leather is again flattened. Since a fine break is considered to be one of the more important characteristics of leather, tanners attempt to obtain as fine a break as possible. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to prevent excessive cohesion of the fibers in the grain surface of the leather, which is one of the major purposes of FATLIQUORING leather. Break is influenced to a great extent by the amount of oil in the grain layer and increases in fineness with an increase of oil. The butt area of a skin usually has a finer break than the belly; tighter skins have finer breaks than looser ones, and a leather like calfskin will have a much finer break than cowhide. Improper methods of finishing may cause an otherwise fine break to become coarse, but the kind of tannage has little effect on break. (102, 248, 363)
breaking length
The length of a strip of paper, cut either in the machine or cross direction, or a strip of cloth, cut either in the warp or filling direction which would break of its own weight when suspended vertically. It is a value calculated from the tensile strength of the material. Under normal circumstances paper will have a greater breaking length in the machine direction than in the cross direction, and cloth a greater breaking length in the warp direction than in the filling. (42, 98, 341)
breaking strength
1. See: BURSTING STRENGTH. 2. The breaking load or force, expressed in pounds per inch, required to rupture a material, such as cloth or paper. breathing. A property of leather, characterized by a resistance to water in the liquid form but having the ability to allow the passage of water vapor. "Breathing" is considered important in maintaining the suppleness and handle of leather, and is one reason why some conservationists oppose the use of hard waxes in leather dressings.
Brethren of the Common Life
See: BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE.
Bretons, Pere et Fils, Le
Two renowned producers of marbled papers of 17th century France. They produced finely veined papers, some of which, with fine veins of gold and silver, were very exquisite. The Bretons also made excellent papers stenciled with flowers on paper with a highly calendered surface. (217)
brick guard
A type of COMPENSATION GUARD, but specifically one side stitched to the text block to compensate for pocket material. (339)
brightening agents
Chemical agents at one time used extensively in leather dye batches to brighten the color of the finished leather. One such agent was sulfuric acid, which is not only destructive but virtually impossible to remove from leather effectively and completely. Another was formic acid, which, being weaker and more volatile, was less destructive. See also: P.I.R.A. TESTED. (298)
brighter binding
A movement initiated in about 1910 in Great Britain by Alexander Philip to encourage libraries to have their books bound in bright. colorful cloth, so as to enliven the appearance of the then drab and colorless bookstacks in the libraries of that time. The belief was that bright bindings meant bright cheerful libraries, whereas a library filled with dark blue and black bindings had the opposite effect. Se also: BINDING SCHEMES. (261)
brightness
Originally, a judgement of the amount of light reflected to the eye from the surface of a material, regardless of hue or color saturation. Brightness is now measured by optical comparators. Many factors affect the brightness of a material such as paper, including the degree of bleaching of the pulp, as well as the addition of chemicals. Chemically treated high-grade text and book papers have a brightness in the range of about 96 (on a scale of 100), coated papers range from about 70 to 85, while mechanical wood machine-coated papers are in the range of about 60 to 75. Newsprint is generally below 60. (17, 72)
brightness reversion
A paper pulp, and particularly a bleached paper pulp, which has lost BRIGHTNESS because of natural or artificial aging. (17)
brime
A finely powdered burnt GYPSUM. Brime is dusted on GOLDBEATER'S SKIN in order to eliminate as much friction as possible during the MOLD (2) stage in the manufacture of gold leaf. (29)
brining
A method generally used in the larger abattoirs for curing hides and skins for transportation to tanneries. After flaying. the hides are washed thoroughly to remove blood and soluble protein matter and the hair is scraped under a spray of water. The flesh side is brushed vigorously to remove surplus flesh. The hides are then hung in pits or run in large paddles in a very strong solution of sodium chloride. using 30 pounds of salt to every 10 gallons of water. This gives a very good and uniform salt penetration for heavy hides in 1 to 14 hours. The hides are then drained and piled and treated with salt in the WET-SALTING process. The purity and strength of the brine must be checked before it is reused, as it may become contaminated with halophilic bacteria. The use of a salt solution as a preliminary treatment for preserving cowhides has been standard practice in South America for many years, and has been in commercial use in the United States since about 1935. Brining, followed by wet-salting, is a more expensive method of cure than salting alone; however, it reduces putrefactive damage to the hides to a considerable extent over simple salting. (248, 306)
bristol board
A lightweight board that can be made on either a Fourdrinier or cylinder papermaking machine. There are three types of bristols: 1) index, 2) mill, and 3) wedding. They range in thickness from 0.006 inch and greater. The original bristol board, made in Bristol. England, was a pasted board made of rag content paper, but very little bristol today is of this character. Bristols are sometimes filled, but are more commonly pasted or plied, the thicker sheets being made by pasting sheets of the same stock together until the desired thickness is attained. They are designated as 2-ply, 3-ply, etc., according to the number of sheets used. The highest grade of bristol is wedding, followed by index and mill. (17, 234, 320)
British marble
A marble pattern, with or without veins, which somewhat resembles the SPANISH MARBLE. It is usually executed entirely in varying shades of black although colors are sometimes used. (241, 369)
brittleness
The property or condition of a material, such as, paper, board. adhesives etc, that causes failure of the material when it is deformed by bending. As virtually any material will fail if bent or folded a sufficient number of times, brittleness is of practical interest only when deformation producing failure is small or the number of folds is relatively small in number. Over the course of many years. high acidity in paper, and particularly acidity resulting from inorganic acids of low volatility has been suspected of being the chief cause of brittleness in paper. This acidity can be attributed to several sources: 1) papermaking procedures, e.g., excessive ALUM in sizing or excessive chlorine in BLEACHING (1), which may lead to the formation of acid; 2) ink; and 3) conditions of storage, which may allow acid gases such as SULFUR DIOXIDE to gain access to the paper, which. in the presence of heat and other conditions. may lead to the formation of acid. See also: ACID; ACID GASES; ACIDITY; ACID SIZE; DEACIDIFICATION; DURABILITY (OF PAPER); FOLDING ENDURANCE. (17, 34, 41, 348)
broad
broad fold
1. A sheet of paper which, after being folded, has the grain direction running with the shorter dimension of the paper. 2. A sheet of paper folded in such a manner that the resulting pages are wider than they are deep, i.e., an OBLONG fold or page, as distinguished from an upright page or "deep fold."
brocade
1. A book cloth, generally made from silk or cotton, woven in jacquard construction and characterized by allover formal design of slightly raised floral and figure designs introduced by additional threads in the filling. 2. In papermaking, a heavily embossed cover paper. 3. A marbled paper with a brocadelike pattern. (183)
brochure
A "stitched work" (from the French "brocher," to stitch). It is a short printed work, with or without a paper or self-cover, and sewn or stitched. (139)
broken
broken back
1. The tendency of a book to open readily at a place or places where the binding has been forced or strained, causing the book to lose its shape. This may be caused by: 1) improper opening of a new book that is tightly bound; 2) improper backing, which flattens the spine and affects its contour; 3) using paper with the grain running at right angles to the spine, resulting in leverage and causing THROW OUT of one or more sections; 4) sections, either with or without plates, that are too bulky, and are forced apart during backing, leaving ridges; and 5) the use of animal glue during the gluing process before rounding and backing, that is too cold or is not sufficiently flexible. In a TIGHT BACK leather binding, it may result in ridges appearing on the spine where the leather has been forced away from the paper. 2. A book broken completely through so that it is in two or more pieces. This generally occurs in relatively old books, particularly those of the 19th century, in which the paper and glue have become so embrittled and inflexible that when the book is opened, it breaks apart. (83, 102)
broken line
1. A blocked or finished line or rule intentionally "broken" by uniformly spaced openings. 2. A blocked line that is not solid as a result of breaks in the gold leaf. (256)
brokers
Binding agents, who were go-betweens or self-appointed salesmen of publishers or library binders, and who solicited binding business and then let out the work to the lowest-priced bidder on their list. Mason Locke Weems ("Parson Weems"), the creator of the George Washington cherry tree myth, seems to have been one such agent, working between binders and the publisher, Matthew Carey. Binding brokers, who flourished in the United States well into the 20th century, are rare today. (131, 308)
bronzed edges
A decorative edge pattern on a book produced by impressing bronze leaf on the edges by means of an engraved roller. The leaf is first pressed into the gravure and then rolled on the edge. This technique was generally executed over colored edges, with albumen or gum arabic being used to secure the leaf to the paper. Bronzed edges were employed mainly in the latter part of the 19th century.
bronze leaf
See: DUTCH GOLD.
bronze powder
A metallic powder made from various bronze or brass alloys and used principally in lacquer or varnish vehicles, or with bronzing liquid, as the so-called gold paint. The powder can be prepared to duplicate every shade of gold from a pale or lemon color to a deep coppery hue. Bronze powder darkens or discolors after a relatively short time, and this, plus the fact that the paint made from it has a lackluster, grainy quality, makes it unsuitable for use in bookbinding. (236)
Brothers of the Common Life
Associations of clerics and laymen that originated in the Netherlands in the 14th century. The reformers, Gerhard Groote and Florent Radewyns, inspired a small group of men at Deventer (Holland) to join together in community life in pursuit of holiness. The movement spread throughout the Netherlands and Germany and was influential until the time of the Reformation. One of the principal occupations of the Brothers was the production of books. but, unlike the monastery scribes, they established their book trade specifically for the purpose of supporting their organization, using the profits derived from the sale of books in their missionary work. In addition, instead of offering their works in Latin, they issued them in the vernacular of the area in which they were produced. At the Convent of St. Jerome at Ghent, the Brothers were noted for the excellence of the manuscripts and bindings they produced. Two examples of their work are embellished with a panel representing their patron, St. Jerome, kneeling before a crucifix. In the background, beyond the mountains, is a view of the belfry of Ghent, surmounted by the dragon, and the spires of three churches. Their first book was issued in 1476 from the Nazareth Monastery in Brussels. (141)
brush
An implement used for the application of paste. glue, or other adhesive liquid, powder, glair, etc., to the surface of paper, board, cloth, leather, or other material. A brush is composed of a gathering of hair or bristles (natural brushes), or some synthetic material. secured in a plastic compound and held in a metal ferrule which is crimped around a handle. A high quality brush always has the natural tips of the hairs or bristles. The various shapes of brushes are achieved by cutting, trimming, and fashioning the root (butt) ends of the hairs. A pointed brush, for example, is shaped by inserting the hairs, tips downward, in a brass "cannon," in the size and shape made for the purpose, and trimming them at the root end. Very superior brushes have a considerable hold of hair within the ferrule, sometimes as much as is seen beyond the ferrule, while cheaper brushes have but little hold. (66, 233)
brushing
The process of developing a mild luster on the finished surface of a leather by the action of a rotary brush. The term is also used with reference to freeing the surface of leather of the fine fibrous dust created by buffing—i.e.. by drawing the skins between a pair of long rotary brushes. (363)
brushing out
See: FIBRILLATION.
B-stage
A secondary stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins, characterized by softening of the resin when heated and swelling when in the presence of certain liquids. but without complete fusing or dissolving. The "b-stage" is also characterized by a progressive increase in viscosity. The resin portion of an uncured thermosetting adhesive is usually in this stage. Also called "resitol." See also: A-STAGE; C-STAGE. (309)
buckle
1. The wrinkling near the head and binding edge of a section, which may be caused by paper that is too thick, or by too many folds in forming the section, and which may be accentuated by the grain direction of the paper being incorrect—i.e.. running from spine to fore edge rather than head to tail. 2. Book covers or cover boards that have been warped and twisted in several directions. See also: COCKLE (1-3). (131)
buckle folding
See: FOLDING
buckram
A BOOK CLOTH made from cotton or linen, usually the former, and closely woven, occasionally with a double warp. It is filled or coated and calendered to give it a smooth finish which blocks well and is reasonably durable. Originally, the term applied only to a starch-filled fabric; today, however, it applies also to coated and impregnated fabrics having a heavy base. The material used to fill the interstices and/or cover the base fabric is usually pyroxylin, but it may be starch, china clay, clay, or other nonfibrous material.
buckskin
A leather produced from the hides of male deer or elk. It usually has a suede finish and is oil tanned or alum tawed. It has a soft texture, and is pliable and reasonably strong. Examples of its use (in England) can be traced back to the 16th century. Imitation buckskin is sometimes made from sheepskin. See also: DEERSKIN. (278, 325)
buds
A decorative ornament filling a small panel on a ROLL (1), usually in the conventionalized form of a spray bearing buds. (250)
buffalo
A leather produced in imitation of RUSSIA LEATHER, but of far greater strength than the genuine leather. It is made from the hide of the large, shaggy-maned North American ox, Bison bison, and was used extensively in covering books in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century.
buffed leather
A leather from which the top surface of the grain has been removed. See also: BUFFING (2); CORRECTED GRAIN. (61)
buffing
1. A very thin innermost split of a hide, usually a cowhide, which is colored and grained to give the appearance of the outer surface of the hide. A buffing is created when a hide is split into three layers. At one time it was used extensively for linings, as well as for covering trade books. It was never used in fine bookbinding. 2. The process of producing a fine nap on the grain surface of leather by means of carborundum paper or on the flesh sides of small skins by the action of an emery wheel. In sandpapering the grain surface of leather, the sharp edges of the carborundum, or other abrasive material, cut the microscopic fibrils in the grain surface and produce a fine nap on the surface. Many of the grain defects in a leather do not penetrate into the leather nearly to the depth of the grain layer, and can be entirely removed by buffing. When a leather is buffed to a measurable depth, as it may have to be if the grain defect is very deep, it is said to be buffed; when it is buffed to a lesser depth, it is said to be snuffed. When a leather is buffed so lightly as not to impair the grain pattern, the leather is said to have a CORRECTED GRAIN. 3. The process of polishing the leather covers of a book with a soft fabric wheel. (264, 278, 325, 358, 363)
buffingnette
A water-resistant cloth made in imitation of leather. While it is adequate for the sides of books that receive considerable use, as it is stain and water resistant, it is not adequate for full covering, as it does not wear well in the areas of the joints. It is also difficult to block, and labels do not adhere to it well unless the surface is abraded and coated with shellac. (105)
buff leather
A leather which has a yellowish, cream or white surface and is finished with a soft, velvet nap. It is produced from cowhide from which the grain layer has been removed by FRIZZING. It is an oil-tanned leather. (351)
build in
building in
The process of placing newly cased-in library books between smooth or brass-bound boards and applying pressure in a standing press or hydraulic press, or applying dry heat and (considerable) pressure for a brief time (usually 8 to 15 seconds) in a hydro-press or BUILDING-IN MACHINE. Building in forms the joints, compresses the book, secures it firmly in its case and reduces substantially any possibility of board warpage. See also: CASING-IN. (139)
building-in machine
A machine used to BUILD IN the text block of a book into its case or covers. Building-in machines substitute heat and great pressure for the element of time required to set and cure the adhesive and form the joints. For intermittent or relatively small production, a single-clamp machine, such as the type often found in library binderies, is often adequate. It can build in books up to 12 by 14 by 4 inches in size, and can process up to five books per minute, depending upon the skill of the operator and the CLAMP DWELL setting of the machine. In general, the longer the dwell time, the more solid the binding, which is essentially the reason why a book built in by this type of machine is not as solid as one left in a press for a longer period of time. In edition binding, multiple-clamp machines are usually used, and can process up to 36 books per minute. In edition machines, books may be manually inserted, or fed in automatically after CASING-IN. See also: CASING-IN MACHINE. (320)
built-up lettering
Multilined decorative lettering, "built up" by forming the letters with pallets and gouges rather than by the use of hand letters. (335)
built-up patterns
Decorative patterns in blind or gold built up from individual line and solid tools. (310)
bulk
1. The thickness of the gathered leaves or sections of a book before sewing, or the thickness of the bound book before its covers are attached, or before casing-in. 2. The thickness of a sheet of paper in relation to its weight. With two papers of equal weight per ream, the one which "handles" the thicker is said to "bulk" the better. 3. The thickness of a specified number of sheets of paper or board under a specified pressure. Bulk here is important in gauging the thickness of a proposed book. 4. In papermaking in its most correct meaning, "bulk" is the ratio of fiber volume of a sheet to total volume, including air spaces which may be void or filled with loading or sizing materials. See also: BULK EQUIVALENTS. (17, 234, 261, 264)
bulked up
A deliberate attempt to make a book thicker and, therefore, of a more substantial appearance. Books, and especially novels, are sometimes "bulked up, ' i.e., printed on BULKING BOOK PAPER so that a higher price may be charged. Such paper, however, is often inferior in both strength and printing quality to a more compact paper. (256)
bulk equivalents
The number of pages per inch of a paper of a given caliper (thousandths of an inch): Caliper/ Pages 4 sheets per Inch 5.5 1,454 6.0 1,332 6.5 1,230 7.0 1,142 7.5 1,066 8.0 1,000 8.5 942 9.0 888 9.5 842 10.0 800 10.5 762 11.0 726 11.5 696 12.0 666 12.5 640 13.0 614 13.5 592 14.0 570 14.5 552 15.0 532 15.5 516 16.0 500 16.5 484 17.0 470 17.5 456 18.0 444 18.5 432 19.0 420 19.5 410 20.0 400 20.5 390 21.0 380 21.5 372 22.0 364 22.5 356 23.0 348 23.5 340 24.0 332 24.5 326 25.0 320 25.5 314 26.0 308 26.5 302 27.0 296 27.5 290 28.0 286 28.5 280 29.0 276 29.5 272 30.0 266 30.5 262 31.0 258 31.5 254 32.0 250 32.5 246 33.0 242 33.5 238 34.0 234 34.5 232 35.0 228 35.5 224 36.0 222 36.5 218 37.0 216 37.5 212 38.0 210 38.5 208 39.0 204 39.5 202 40.0 200 40.5 198 41.0 194 41.5 192 42.0 190 42.5 188 43.0 186 43.5 184 44.0 182 44.5 180 45.0 178 45.5 176 46.0 174 46.5 172 47.0 170 47.5 168 48.0 166 48.5 164 49.0 162 49.5 162 50.0 160 (52)
bulking book paper
A paper produced to give maximum bulk per unit ream weight. It is produced from a number of paper furnishes designed to impart this property, including cotton linters, rag pulp, esparto, and chemical wood pulps. Some grades contain a large percentage of mechanical wood pulp mixed with other pulps. The paper furnish is provided with little or no fillers. This paper is usually made to specifications of finish, caliper, or both. Bulking book paper picks easily and often causes difficulties in printing. See also: BULKED UP; NOVEL PAPER. (17)
bumping hammer
See: BACKING HAMMER.
bundle
1. A seldom used term applied to a printed sheet that has been folded to make a section. 2. A unit of board measure, generally of weight of 50 pounds. The actual number of boards in a bundle will depend on area and caliper of the boards. 3. At one time, a package of paper containing 2 perfect reams, or 1,000 sheets, but in today's usage, a package of paper weighing about 125 pounds and containing any number of sheets, depending on the size, caliper, and type of paper. (17, 316)
bundling
1. The process of tying up the sections of a book under pressure before GATHERING (1), for the purpose of keeping them clean, flat, and ready for gathering, while at the same time compressing them into a compact and solid state. 2. The process of gathering together a number of skins of leather, usually 12, of the same kind, weight, and grade. The total area of leather is indicated on the bundle. (179, 236, 320)
bundling press
bundling machine
See illustration A type of press used to compress the newly folded sections of a book or group of books, usually of the same title. Bundling presses are usually of three types: 1) the hand-bundling press, which consists of a floor stand on which two jaws are mounted horizontally. One of the jaws is stationary and the other movable. The group of sections with strings around it is placed between the jaws and compressed by forcing the movable jaw towards the stationary one. The jaws are designed so as to allow for the tying of the bundles while under pressure; 2) the power-bundling press, which is either vertically or horizontally oriented, and in which a movable bed is driven toward a stationary head by power supplied by an electric motor through a system of gears and racks; and 3) the pneumatic bundling press, which may also be vertically or horizontally oriented, in which the movable jaw is driven by a piston to which power is supplied by compressed air. In all three types, when the sections of several books are to be bundled together, the groups are placed between boards, bundled, and the entire group, including boards, is tied before being removed from the press. (142, 320, 339)
buried cords
See: SAWING IN.
burnish
1. The glossiness or brilliance produced by rubbing the gilt edges or leather cover of a book with a burnishing or polishing tool. See also: BURNISHER (5) (2). 2. In papermaking, to burnish or polish the surface of a paper. See also: GLAZED (1). (94)
burnished edges
The colored or gilt edges of a book which have been polished, usually by means of a bloodstone or agate implement called a BURNISHER (2). See also: BURNISHER(S) (2).
burnisher
burnishers
See illustration 1. One who burnishes the edges of a book. 2. The tools used to burnish the edges of a book. They are made of metal, agate (quartz), or bloodstone set in handles. The bloodstone type is the best and also the most expensive. Burnishers are generally available in two basic shapes—flat and toothed. They are relatively delicate tools and chip easily if handled roughly; they may be kept smooth and in good condition by rubbing them on the flesh side of a piece of leather coated with whiting, or, if too rough to be smoothed in this manner, by rubbing them on a zinc-lined board coated with a small amount of flour or emery mixed with machine oil. (66, 99, 278)
burnishing brushes
A black lead or shoe brush, having stiff but not harsh bristles, and used, after coating the edges of a book with black lead, to burnish the edges before glairing for edge-gilding. (66)
burnt gypsum
See: BRIME.
burnt sugar
One of the coloring materials which, when dissolved in water, can be used to restore the proper tone or shade to the leaves of a book that have been washed. The burnt sugar is added to the resizing bath, and the paper is "toned" at the same time it is sized. (154)
burnt umber
A dark brown pigment produced by calcining raw umber, and used in a mixture of red ochre, oil, and water, as a sprinkle for the edges of books. See also: SPRINKLED EDGES; UMBER. (371)
burst factor
The BURSTING STRENGTH of paper in grams per square centimeter divided by the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper in grams per square meter, which gives the burst factor as a numerical value. See also: BURST RATIO. (17, 72)
bursting strength
The combined tensile strength and stretch of a material as measured by the ability of the material to resist rupture when pressure is applied under specified conditions to one of its sides by an instrument used for testing the property. Testing for the bursting strength of paper is a very common procedure, although its value in determining the potential permanence or durability of paper is suspect. See also: BURST FACTOR; POINTS PER POUND. (17, 72)
burst ratio
The BURSTING STRENGTH of a material in points per pound. See also: BURST FACTOR.
butcher cuts
Damage to hides and skins caused by improper and/ or unskilled flaying, and usually seen in the form of cuts or furrows on the flesh side. In extreme cases, the cuts may go completely through the skin, thus reducing its value greatly. Butcher cuts are sometimes particularly noticeable on parchment and vellum. (363)
butt
1. That part of a hide or skin corresponding to the animal's back and sides after cutting away the shoulder and belly, and consisting of the thickest and strongest part of the skin. See also: SHELL. 2. Any type of hinge or joint used for reinforcement, or for fastening a bulky insert into a binding. (256, 261, 325)
butterstamp
See: BAND PALLET.
buttonhole stitch
An embroidery stitch used in making a HEADBAND, and executed by drawing the needle and thread from the upper through the lower edge of the core, and out over the lower thread of the preceding stitch. The stitches are repeated, sometimes in alternate colors, e.g., blue and green, to form a firm line of adjacent loops around the core. (83, 111)
C
The Roman equivalent of 100. See also: ROMAN NUMERALS.
cabinet size
See: OBLONG.
cable pattern
See: ROPE PATTERN.
cabretta leather
A leather produced from the skins of sheep which have hair instead of wool, i.e., straight-haired sheepskins. The leather is produced in India, China, South America, and Africa, the best grades coming from the latter two areas. In the United r States, the term is generally considered to indicate specifically a Brazilian sheepskin. Cabretta is generally chrome tanned and has a very fine grain and a strong fiber network. (61, 325)
cahier
A number of loose sheets assembled for binding, or bound loosely together to form a notebook or pamphlet. 2. The French expression for the signature of a bound book.
cake glue
Generally, an animal GLUE supplied in large slabs up to 3 inches in thickness. The slabs are broken into small pieces, soaked in cold water until they absorb as much water as possible, and then heated to useable consistency. Flexible (internally plasticized) glue does not have to be soaked.
calcium acetate
A chemical (Ca(C2H3O2) . 2HO), prepared by neutralizing acetic acid with lime or calcium a carbonate, and used in the preparation of other acetates and in the deacidification of paper.
calcium bicarbonate
A salt obtained by replacing only one of the two hydrogen atoms in carbonic acid (H2CO3) by the metallic atom calcium, giving (Ca(HCO3)2). It is employed in a 0.2% solution to carbonate excess calcium hydroxide used in deacidifying paper, and also to precipitate calcium carbonate into the fibers of the paper being treated. The precipitated calcium carbonate acts as a buffer to neutralize any acid that forms in the paper subsequent to treatment. (31)
calcium carbonate
A salt (CaCO3), occurring naturally, usually in sea deposition, and prepared commercially by passing carbon dioxide either through cold lime water, which precipitates the calcite crystalline type, or hot lime water, which gives the aragonite crystalline type. The calcite is the thermodynamically stable form. Calcium carbonate is sometimes precipitated into paper by suitable chemical reactions to deacidify the paper, and is also used both as a filler and a coating pigment in the manufacture of paper. (31, 67, 143)
calcium hydroxide
A strong alkali (Ca(OH)2), which can be formed by the reaction of calcium oxide (CaO) with water. If the oxide is treated with only sufficient water to make it crumble to a fine, white, dry powder, slaked lime is produced. By slaking the paste formed from the oxide with an excess of water, a suspension called "milk of lime" is formed. A clear solution of the hydroxide in water is known as lime water. Calcium hydroxide is used extensively in a very strong solution (pH of approximately 11.4) in the LIMING and UNHAIRING of hides and skins in leather manufacture, and in the deacidification of paper. In the latter use, the resulting pH is approximately 11.0, and paper so treated is easily oxidized unless the pH is reduced by exposure to carbon dioxide or the paper is treated subsequently with a solution of calcium bicarbonate. (31, 363)
calcium hypochlorite
Any hypochlorite of calcium, e.g., the normal anhydrous salt (Ca(ClO)2), that is generally found in commercial products containing 70 to 75% available chlorine. Calcium hypochlorite is used by many paper conservationists to bleach archival papers, and it is also used as an oxidizing agent to reduce the effects of FOXING. Its use is potentially harmful, as the chlorine is difficult to remove. Also known as "bleaching powder."
calcium sulfate
A salt (CaSO . H2O), very slightly soluble in water. In its natural form, it may exist as anhydrite (CaSO4) or gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) It is used as a filler pigment in the manufacture of paper. Precipitated calcium sulfate is known as "crown filler," or "pearl filler." See also: BRIME.
calcium sulfite
A salt (CaSO3), prepared by reacting sulfurous acid with calcium hydroxide, and used as a filler coating pigment in paper manufacture.
calender
Horizontal cast iron rolls with hardened, chilled surfaces resting one on another in a vertical bank at the dry end of the papermaking machine. The paper web is passed between all or part of the calender rolls to increase the smoothness and gloss of its surface. See also: SUPERCALENDER. (17, 80)
calendered
A paper or cloth that has been given a smooth surface by passing it through a CALENDER one or more times. Paper which receives a minimum of calendering is said to have an antique finish. With more calendering it acquires a machine finish, then an English finish, and, finally a supercalendered (highly glazed) finish. See also: CALENDERED CLOTH. (143, 276)
calendered cloth
A cloth that has had a filler of starch, usually soybean flour, impregnated into the weave of the base cloth by means of iron or steel rollers exerting a great pressure. If the rolls are heated, a high gloss is also imparted. The cloth may also be embossed during the calendering process. (341)
calf finish
Originally, the smooth, ungrained finish of any animal skin tanned for use in bookbinding, and later used to designate CALFSKIN finished in a variety of grains in imitation of alligator, lizard, snakeskin, etc. (256)
calf lined
A lining on the innerside of a limp cover, consisting of CALFSKIN in lieu of the board paper. This type of lining was thin and glued to the leather cover only at the outer edges. This left the covers pliable so that the book could be rolled up. Calf linings have been used at various times, and, although they are still used to some extent today, their most extensive use was in the years immediately before and after 1900. (105)
calf paper
A colored and embossed paper somewhat resembling leather and used occasionally for covering books.
calfskin
In its broadest sense, a leather made from the skin of an immature bovine animal. In a more limited sense. however, it is considered to be leather made from the skin of a bovine animal that has not been weaned, or at least has been fed only milk, and whose skin does not exceed a certain weight (15 pounds or slightly more) in the green salted state. The heavier skins of immature milk-fed animals, i.e., those up to 25 or 30 pounds in the green state, are often referred to as "veals" rather than calfskin. The best calfskins for bookbinding purposes are prepared by tanning in oak bark or sumac tanning liquors. Its freedom from grain defects makes calfskin suitable for finishing in delicate shades of color. It may be finished rough or smooth, the latter being more common, and, as it may be without any noticeable grain pattern, it may be tooled with very little preliminary blinding in. Books which are full bound in calfskin may be described as being diced, grained, marbled, mottled, scored, sprinkled, stained, or tree, according to the form of decoration used. In addition, special styles are known as divinity, antique, law, reverse, or rough calf. Calfskin has been used as a covering material for books since 1450, or even earlier, and, up to the end of the 18th century, it was a common bookbinding leather. Thereafter, various forms of sheepskin, and later cloth, replaced calfskin as the most commonly used bookbinding material. There are two distinct views concerning the durability of calfskin. Some contend that because the skin is from an immature animal, the leather made from it cannot be durable, even when carefully selected and tanned, because the fibers of the skin are not fully developed. Furthermore, there is the argument that, since the skin is very soft, it shows scratches and mars too easily, and, when used, the book must then be varnished or kept in a box. Others, however, argue that if the skins are selected carefully and tanned very slowly in oak bark or sumac, calfskin makes a quite durable leather capable of withstanding considerable wear. Physiologically, calfskin is not nearly as weak as its detractors maintain. Although the fiber network is indeed lacking the depth of cowhide, the fiber bundles are reasonably stout and contain numerous finer fibers which are long, highly ramified, and of high tensile strength. This is because, in any young animal, the connective tissue, i.e., skin, develops more rapidly than some other parts of the body, such as the muscles. The dermal network of calfskin is therefore reasonably well developed and exhibits remarkable strength and toughness. In addition, there is no denying the fact that there are calfskin bookbindings that have come down to us in their original bindings; many are several hundred years old. In as much as the durability of calfskin before the 18th century was not in doubt, it may be that it was the lowering of tanning standards that resulted in less durable calfskin. Furthermore, the bleaching methods employed to produce light-colored skins, as well as the techniques of decorating calf bindings with acid and other chemicals to produce mottled-, sprinkled-, and tree-calf effects were probably the major reasons for its reputation of insufficient durability. See also: SLUNK; TREE CALF. (207, 291, 351, 363)
calf split
A flesh split of a calfskin, sometimes embossed so as to make it resemble the grain side of the skin. The split lacks the necessary strength to be used for anything other than linings and labels.
calico
A plain white cotton fabric that is heavier than muslin. As early as the first quarter of the 19th century calico was dyed in various colors and used for covering publishers' bindings; it was in fact one of the first cloths to be used for covering books. It is still used to some extent for lining the spines of edition bindings, although for this purpose it is inferior to several other fabrics. See: SPINE LINING FABRIC. (71, 236)
caliper
1. The thickness of a material measured under specified conditions. Caliper is usually measured in thousandths of an inch (mills or points), or, under the metric system, in millimeters. 2. The instrument used to measure the thickness of a material. See also: THICKNESS.
cambric
1. A fine linen thread used in lieu of silk for working headbands. 2. A fine, closely woven white linen fabric, used in library binding for hinges, spine linings, extensions, etc.
Cambridge calf
Cambridge sheep
A method of decorating a calf- or sheepskin binding by sprinkling on two tints, leaving a rectangular "pane" (panel) in the center of each cover. This technique was used extensively from the 1670s and again during the early decades of the 18th century. It was revived and used to a considerable extent during the second half of the 19th century. (371)
Cambridge style
An English style of bookbinding practiced largely on theological works and in university libraries. Although used elsewhere, the style was so highly favored by binders in Cambridge in the early years of the 18th century that it became recognized as their speciality, which probably accounts for the name. Books bound in this style were sewn on raised cords, covered in calfskin that was masked and sprinkled in such a manner as to leave a stained central rectangular panel, a plain rectangular frame, which, in turn, was surrounded by a stained outside frame. The books had Dutch marble endpapers and red edges. The spine was pieced with red russia leather labels and had double blind lines at head and tail on each side of the raised bands. The covers were decorated with a two-line fillet close to the edges and on each side of the panel. and with a narrow flower roll worked on each side of the panel close to the lines. There were many variations of this style, including some books tooled in gold, and some with marbled covers and sprinkled panels. (69, 154)
cameo bindings
A style of Italian binding of the first half of the 16th century, which was imitated by French binders and also by ROGER PAYNE at a later date. The style consisted of designs in relief made from dies cut intaglio, somewhat in imitation of gems or metals. Leather was the medium most often used, although vellum was also used, being pressed while wet on the die, and with the cavities being filled with a composition of lacquered paste to preserve the shape of the figures. After being attached to the center of the leather cover, they were sometimes gilt and painted. Cameo bindings were a development of the antiquarian interest in classical coins and gems, actual examples of which at first provided the sources of the molds. French examples executed for Henri 11 and Jean Grolier bore a central medallion stamped with an intaglio cut die. The design was embossed on a gilded and colored background. See also: CANEVARI BINDINGS. (110, 141, 279, 347)
camlet
To marble. See: MARBLING.
camphor
A crystalline terpenoid ketone (C10H16O), occurring naturally in the (+)-, (-)- and (±) forms. Ordinary commercial camphor is the (+) type, obtained from the wood of the camphor tree (Cinnamonum camphora), mainly from Formosa. It can also be manufactured, using pinene (C10H16) as the raw material. It is sometimes used in an effort to rid books and bookcases of BOOKWORMS, and as a plasticizer in cellulose nitrate plastics.
cancel
cancels cancellans
1. A replacement leaf or leaves, printed because of a mistake in the original printing, an imperfect page, etc., that is to replace the corresponding faulty section before the book is actually published. Cancels have been common since the beginning of printing from metal type; however, with the development of high speed printing presses, it has become more economical simply to reprint an entire signature rather than go to the expense of inserting a cancel by hand. The substitution of the cancel by either the printer or binder depends on when the mistake is discovered. If the binder is to make the substitution, the printer may mark the incorrect leaf with an asterisk to indicate to the binder that he is to cut out that leaf and tip the replacement to the stub. If the replacement leaf bears a signature mark the asterisk should precede the signature letter. 2. In bookbinding, in a broad sense, all leaves that are not to be bound in. This applies specifically to the waste sheets. (69, 131, 234)
cancelland
cancellandum
The incorrect, inaccurate, or otherwise disposal leaf that is to be cut out and replaced by a CANCEL. (140)
cancellation
The removal of a leaf, leaves, or an entire section of a publication because of an error, or for some other reason. When a leaf is removed, the remaining stub is termed a disjunct leaf. Se also: CANCEL; CANCELLANDUM. (12, 343)
cancel title
A replacement title page substituted for the original. See also: CANCEL; CANCELLANDUM. (234)
candelilla wax
A WAX found as an exudate on the leaves and stems of a plant (Euphorbia antisyphilitica) found in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, and obtained by boiling the leaves and stems with water and sulfuric acid. It is yellowish-brown in color and is opaque to translucent. It is classed as hard wax and has a softening range at 64 to 68° C. It is used in making varnish and as a substitute for CARNAUBA WAX to impart a high gloss to leathers that are not glazed. (291)
Canevari bindings
See: GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA.
canton flannel
A soft cotton fabric, napped on one side, and sometimes used as a spine lining fabric, usually in library binding. The nap side is placed next to the spine. (102)
canvas
A firm, closely woven fabric, usually made of cotton, hemp, or linen, in plain weave, and produced in various weights. Canvas has been used as a covering material for books for centuries, and was one of the principal fabrics used for embroidered bindings. Its greatest use historically, however, has been for rough job bindings, certain varieties of chapbooks, textbooks published between 1770 and about 1830 in England, and some types of reference books. Today its use is virtually limited to the covering of very large books, newspapers, etc., and as a CHEMISE for leather-bound county record books and other large stationery bindings. See also: ART CANVAS; DUCK. (69, 82, 111, 264)
canvas finish paper
A heavy, durable cover paper, made with a textured finish in imitation of canvas. It is used mainly for semi-stiff covers for brochures, pamphlets, etc. (86)
caoutchouc binding
A particular (and probably first) form of ADHESIVE BINDING, invented by William Hancock, and patented in 1836, in which the single sheets were secured with a rubber solution obtained from the latex of certain tropical plants, especially of the genera Hevea and Ficus. According to Hancock's specifications, the edges of the assembled leaves were roughened and then coated with the caoutchouc, which, when dry, was followed by one to five coatings of a stronger rubber solution. When the last coating was applied a strip of cloth coated with the caoutchouc was applied in a warm, sticky condition and rubbed down firmly. Great numbers of these bindings were produced both in England and the United States from about 1840, and the process was used for many of the illustrated "table books" of the 1860s, as well as for many large folios printed on very thick paper. The process afforded both openability and durability, or so for the latter it was believed at the time. Both characteristics depended to a large extent on the purity of the rubber solution, and the degree to which it remained flexible. That it did not remain very flexible has been demonstrated by the fact most caoutchouc bindings have fallen apart. Also called "guttapercha binding," although incorrectly because gutta percha, which is also obtained from tropical trees was tried and found to be unsuitable. (89, 236)
caoutchouc polish
A caout-rubber base varnish, used occasionally in the 19th century for varnishing the leather covers of books. See also: CAOUTCHOUC BINDING. (97)
cape
Originally, a leather made from South African hair sheep. Today it is considered to be any leather made from a hair sheep, except East Indian native vegetable tanned sheep. (325)
capping up
capping
1. See: HEADCAP. 2. The process of placing a paper covering or "can" over the edges of a book following headbanding, so as to prevent the edges from becoming soiled or damaged during the subsequent operations. (237, 261)
capstan
A decorative ornament. often found on English and French head-in medallion rolls, the principal feature of which roughly resembled a vertical spindle-mounted drum. (250)
caput mortuum
See: VENETIAN RED.
carbolic acid
See: PHENOL,
carbonaceous inks
A general term used in describing a group of inks produced from finely ground carbon or a similar substance, e.g., soot or lampblack, and which are jet black and very stable. A glutinous substance is used as a binder. Such inks are the simplest of all inks to produce and have been known from the earliest times. They have no destructive influences on paper but they do present difficulties to restorers because they are so easily affected by water. The carbonaceous inks may be subdivided into CARBON INK, CHINESE INK, and the SEPIA INKS. (143)
carbon disulfide
A colorless, highly refractive liquid (CS2). It is prepared by heating sulfur and wood charcoal, or by reacting methane with sulfur vapor over a catalyst. It is used in the manufacture of carbon tetrachloride, and for fumigating books. Its customary disagreeable odor results from the presence of small amounts of other sulfur compounds. Carbon disulfide is both toxic and flammable.
carbon ink
A modified form of CHINESE INK. Carbon ink is a mixture of finely divided carbon carried in a vehicle of glue or a gum. It is extremely stable, as evidenced by the characters on manuscripts of the 7th to 10th centuries, and even Egyptian papyri, which are darker and more distinct than those of the 16th century, when IRON-GALL INK came into use. Carbon ink has no destructive effects on paper, but it does present problems to restorers because it is so easily affected by water. (143)
carbon lettering
Carbon in powdered form. used in lieu of gold leaf or other metal or foil for lettering books. particularly when the covering material is canvas, or a similar fabric. The pallet and type are heated as for gold blocking, but the type is coated with carbon and then pressed firmly into the covering material. ART VELLUM is also a suitable material for carbon lettering. In very humid climates, this type of lettering may require several days to dry sufficiently for the books to be handled. At times, carbon ink is used in lieu of carbon. (358)
carbon paper
A thin paper coated with carbon black or some other coloring matter in a vehicle of wax or an oil-soluble substance and used for making duplicate copies. It is sometimes used by bookbinders to produce a dark color on a bookbinding approximating blind tooling. Carbon paper is also used for making paper pattern layouts prior to lettering, and when the leather does not darken uniformly with water. Size must first be applied, otherwise the carbon will rub off.
carbon tetrachloride
A colorless, mobile, nonflammable, liquid (CCl4), used as a solvent and grease remover, and as a fumigant for books. It is both toxic and volatile. It also gives off chlorine, which, in the presence of glowing charcoal, e.g., a lighted cigarette, becomes phosgene, which is even more toxic.
carboxymethylcellulose
An aqueous adhesive prepared by reacting chloracetic acid (ClCH2COOH) with alkali cellulose, and used in the SUNDEX PROCESS, (198)
cardboard
A board 0.006 inch or more in thickness. It is stiffer than paper. Although the generic term "board" is used in lieu of the term "cardboard" in bookbinding parlance, the covers of many pamphlets, brochures, etc., as well as the card used to line prints, posters, etc., and also used in FILLING IN (1), are of a thickness that would fit them into the definition of cardboard. (17, 234, 264)
cardboard prints
Printed cover-, end-. and other decorative papers, produced by gluing artistically shaped cuts of cardboard to a sheet of cardboard, inking with an oil-base printing ink and pressing on the paper to be decorated. (183)
carnauba wax
A yellowish-white or green, sticky exudation on the leaves, berries and stalks of the carnauba palm (Copernicia cerifera), found in South America, and especially Brazil. It is believed to consist largely of myricyl ceretate and myricyl alcohol (C29H59 . CH2 . OH). It is used to impart a high gloss to leathers that are not to be glazed, and by bookbinders to polish the edges of books after gilding and burnishing through paper. The wax imparts a high gloss to the edges and is preferred to beeswax by some as it is less likely to streak. Carnauba wax has a softening range of 83 to 84° C., which makes it especially suitable for use in very hot climates. (195, 291)
carragheen moss
A dark purple, branching cartilaginous seaweed (Chondrus crispus), found on the coasts of Northern Europe and North America. The moss is used in the preparation of MARBLING SIZE, about 4 ounces of the moss being sufficient to make 9 or 10 quarts of size. Carragheen moss was first used in making marbling size sometime after the middle of the 19th century. The extract of the moss is also used as a thickening agent and viscosity stabilizer in some adhesives. (217, 237, 335)
cartonnage à la Bradel
See: BRADEL BINDING.
cartouche
1. An elaborate style of decoration popular in Italy about the middle of the 16th century. The decoration consists of elaborately interlaced fillets filling the entire field of the covers, and sometimes accompanied by arabesques, worked in a single line with tools cut in the shapes of flowers. 2. A term meaning literally a scroll or paper with the ends rolled up, bearing the title, and sometimes other information, pertaining to a book. 3. A frame, either plain or decorative, or a scroll, in which the title, name of the cartographer, and other particulars of a map are placed. The cartouche usually appears in a corner of the map, and in old maps it was frequently decorated with scenes, animals, armorial designs, etc. 4. A small rectangular ornament usually found on a ROLL (1), formed by one or more lines, generally with a plain center. (94, 234, 250)
cartridge paper
A paper similar in appearance to hard antique paper. It is tough, closely formed, and is usually produced from chemical wood pulps, esparto, or a combination of the two. The degree of sizing depends on th purpose for which it is to be used, and its surface may be rough, semi-rough or smooth. Cartridge paper is generally unbleached or only slightly bleached, and is made in basis weights ranging from 60 to 80 pounds. It is used for endpapers, linings, and compensation guards. The term "cartridge paper" is not generally used in the United States. The name derives from its original use in forming the tube section of shotgun shells. (17, 58, 182)
case
1. The covering material, boards and inlay of a book, i.e., a book cover ready to be attached to the text block. Edition and library bindings have cases and are said to be case bindings. 2. A box or cover made to protect a book. See: PORTFOLIO (1); PULL-OFF BOX; SLIPCASE; SOLANDER BOX.
case binding
A general term for a method of bookbinding, introduced in Great Britain in the 1820s. in which the case (covers) of the book is made separately (and, in edition binding, usually in large numbers) from the book (the text block and endpapers) and later attached to it by gluing the board papers of the text block to the inside of the boards of the case. This operation is known as CASING-IN. Case binding is distinguished from those methods of binding in which the covers are not made separately, as in craft bookbinding IN BOARDS (1). Case binding is the principal method employed in both edition and library binding. (203, 276, 355)
case-hardening
An irregular, distorted (drawn) grain in a leather, usually accompanied by hardness and thinness of the leather itself. It is caused primarily by over-tanning. See: OVER-TANNED. (306)
case hide
An expression used in Great Britain to describe a stained or otherwise colored leather, generally having a smooth, more or less glossy surface finish. It is sometimes embossed with an artificial grain. Case hide is produced from a full grain or buffed cow hide and is vegetable tanned. (61)
casein
An acid-coagulable protein, occurring as a suspension of calcium caseinate in skim milk. It is possible to isolate it as an alkali-solution white powder by treating cow's milk with either mineral acid or rennet. The acid casein is used in the sizing of paper, as a simple adhesive, in the manufacture of coated papers, and as a plastic in leather finishes. Casein adhesives are little used in bookbinding as they can only be made workable by the addition of rather strong alkalies, which makes them unsuitable for use with paper or vellum. (52, 198, 309)
case-making
A general term usually applied to the production of cases for edition bindings, generally by means of semi-automatic or automatic machines. The term may also be applied to library binding, in which case-making is carried out by hand. See also: CASE-MAKING GAUGE; CASE-MAKING MACHINE; CASING-IN. (102, 179, 183)
case-making gauge
case gauge
A gauge used in the production of identical book cases in relatively small quantities. The case is made by hand, the gauge being used to indicate where the boards and INLAY (1) are to be placed on the covering material which has been cut to size and glued. Case-making gauges are adjustable for different sizes of cases, turn-ins, and widths of inlay. (259, 261)
case-making machine
A hand- or machine-fed machine used to assemble the covering material, boards, and inlays of case-bound edition books. Case-making machines are of two general types: sheet fed, either by hand or machine, and roll fed, by machine. Roll fed machines require two additional steps in their operation as compared with sheet-fed machines, namely, corner cutting and separation of the individual cases. The covering material, however, does not have to he pre-cut. Sheet fed machines receive the covering material in the correct size for the individual case with the corners already cut. Case-making machines may be modified for use of paper as the covering material, to make round-cornered eases, to use light board instead of paper for the inlays, and to make album covers which have one narrow and one wide board, with a hinge. Modern ease-making machines can produce up to 21 cases per minute with dimensions of 5 1/2 by 7 1/2 inches to 9 1/2 by 15 1/2 inches, with extended capabilities using accessory equipment. The case-making machine dates back to the latter years of the 19th century; its greatest period of development was 1891-95. (89, 196, 203, 320)
casing-in
The process of securing the text block and attached endpapers into a case that was produced as a separate operation, lettered and (especially in edition binding) sometimes decorated. In library binding, casing-in generally takes place in a BUILDING-IN MACHINE, or equivalent, while in edition binding, it is generally done in a CASING-IN MACHINE. (179)
casing-in boards
Wooden boards cut square at the edge and lined on one edge with a brass strip that extends beyond one or both sides of the hoard about 1/8 inch. The brass extension creates the joints of the hook during the CASING-IN operation. Such boards are used when the book is cased by hand and pressed in a standing- or hydraulic press. The BUILDING-IN MACHINE has metal flanges at the edges of the jaws which accomplish the same result. See also: PRESSING BOARDS. (264)
casing-in machine
A semi- or fully-automatic machine which fits books into their pre-made cases and completes the binding operation. Semi-automatic machines require an operator to hang the books in their centers over a metal "wing." The machine then automatically clamps the book, coats the board papers with adhesive, fits the case on the text block and completes the operation. Three-wing casing-in machines are capable of processing books up to 3 inches in thickness (including covers), and, lying open, 14 inches high and 22 inches wide, at speeds up to 25 books per minute. A fully automatic machine does not require timed feeding or removal of books. It can process books measuring not less than 3 3/8 inches in height, 2 1/2 to 7 1/2 inches in width and between 1/4 and 1 5/8 inches thick, at speeds up to 35 books per minute. The casing-in machine came into existence in the latter years of the ] 9th century, and its principal period of development occurred during the early years of the 20th century. (89, 320)
castor oil
A colorless to pale yellow or greenish, viscous, non-drying fatty oil of high viscosity, extracted from beans of the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis). It consists almost entirely of the glyceryl esters of ricinoleic acid. At low temperatures it thickens; it solidifies at approximately -10 to -18° C. It is used in leather finishing processes, and, in the sulfated form, as a preservative for leather bindings. Sulfating the oil, by reacting it with sulfuric acid. allows it to react with water. This is beneficial for books stored under hot, dry conditions, as it helps keep the leather soft and pliable under conditions of low relative humidity. (173)
catalog paper
A lightweight paper, either coated or with an English finish, usually made with a considerable proportion of mechanical pulp, and used for mail-order catalogs, telephone directories, and the like. Uniformity of weight, opacity. finish, formation, and sufficient strength to get through high-speed printing presses are desired characteristics. Basis weights usually range from 19 to 28 pounds (24 X 36—500). (17, 324)
catalyst
1. A substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed. A catalyst may increase the rate (positive catalyst), or decrease the rate (negative catalyst). The final state or equilibrium of the reaction is not changed by the catalyst. only the rate of approaching the final state is changed. Examples of catalytic action in the field of archival preservation include the impurities in paper, such as iron or copper, minute particles of which may inadvertently be introduced into the paper pulp in the beater operation. According to some authorities, these can act as catalysts in the formation of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid in paper. by assisting in the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid, or the chlorine frequently used in bleaching paper pulp, into hydrochloric acid. Leather, also, may contain minute particles of metals which may speed up the formation of sulfuric acid. 2. A chemical substance added to thermosetting resinous adhesives to speed up the cure time of such adhesives. to increase the cross linkage of a synthetic polymer, or to accelerate adhesive drying. (221, 235, 309)
catch
A metal plate secured to the fore edge, and at times to the head and tail edges, of a book cover, and fixed with a bar, over which the clasp fits. Sometimes a pin is used in lieu of a bar. See also: CLASPS. (250)
catch stitch
1. Any type of locking stitch, such as KETTLE STITCH. 2. A stitch used to gather or "catch up" the sewing threads which pass around the tapes of a book. The purpose of this stitch is to prevent undue looseness of the sewing thread. Also called "link sewing." (83, 119)
catchword
The word appearing at the bottom of the page following the bottom line of print. It is also the first word of the following page. Catchwords originally appeared on the last page of a quire or manuscript, and were intended to he used by the bookbinder in gathering. Later, they appeared at the foot of every verso or even every page; however, their use in the printed books of Europe was never very consistent. In Italian books of the period 1470-1500 they first appeared at the end of each signature (section), and later at the end of every page. In the 19th century, their use in conjunction with signature marks was redundant and they were discontinued. (12, 156, 234, 365)
catechol
pyrocatechin pyrocatechol
A colorless crystal (C6H6O2), soluble in water, alcohol, ether, benzene, and alkalis. An alkaline solution gives a coloration with ferric chloride, which turns brown on standing in air. It can be obtained from CATECHU, a natural dye, or prepared by fusing orthobenzenedisulfonic acid with caustic soda. Catechol is the principal constituent of the condensed (catechol) tannins. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (235, 306)
catechol tannins
See: VEGETABLE TANNINS.
catechu
black catechu cutch
An extract obtained from the wood of Acacia catechu, a tree grown in Eastern India, and other areas, and used in tanning leather. It contains catechin and catechutannic acid. See also: CATECHOL; VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
catenati
See CHAINED BOOKS.
catgut
A tough cord made from the intestines of animals, such as sheep and other herbivores, and used at times for the core of the HEADBAND, especially when a round band is desired, and also for TACKETING, where additional strength is required for large stationery bindings. (172)
cathedral bindings
Bookbindings executed between about 1810 and approximately 1840 in England and France. The name derives from the motifs of the embellishment, e.g., Gothic architecture, rose windows, and the like. The design was either blocked on the cover, as in France, or built up by means of separate tools, as in England. The cathedral style was a revival of the 16th century ARCHITECTURAL STYLE by the 19th century binder JOSEPH THOUVENIN. (69, 347)
cationic (substances)
Substances, such as dyes, tannins, oils, etc., which ionize when dissolved in water, so that the characteristic ion—dye, tannin, oil, etc.—is the cation and has a positive charge. Cf: ANIONIC (SUBSTANCES) (305)
cat's paw calf
An acid-stain pattern on a calfskin binding, somewhat resembling the paw marks of a cat. See also: TREE CALF.
cat's tooth decoration
A form of decoration consisting of a serrated line resembling a row of teeth. It is usually impressed with a ROLL (1), and is generally used as a border decoration.
caustic
A term used with reference to the hydroxides of alkali and alkaline earth metals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., so called because they possess corrosive properties. In very dilute solutions, caustics are used to neutralize acidity in paper, to control pH in the bleaching of paper furnishes, etc., and in very strong solutions in leather manufacture to lime and unhair hides and skins.
caustic soda
See: SODIUM HYDROXIDE.
Caxton, William
c 1416-1491
The English linguist, editor, printer, and publisher, who was the first to print books in the English language. Caxton was born in Kent, possibly in the village of Tenderton, traveled to London in 1438 and became apprenticed to the merchant Robert Large, who was also Lord Mayor of London. Three years later Large died, leaving the young Caxton some 20 marks, a not inconsiderable sum in those days. Possibly as early as 1441 Caxton moved to Bruges and by not later than 1446 had established himself in business there. While in Flanders (1446-76) he became a very successful merchant in the Anglo-Flemish cloth trade, and was made governor of the English Nation at Bruges in 1462. It was in Bruges that Caxton entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy and sister of Edward IV of England. It is believed that he functioned as secretary, librarian, translator, or all three, to Margaret, and it has also been suggested that it may have been her keen desire to have books in her native language that prompted Caxton to take up the trade of translating and publishing books in English. It may have been during a visit to Cologne in 1471-72 that he first encountered the craft of printing, and it is reasonably certain that he learned the craft from Johann Veldener. Caxton returned to Bruges in 1472 and there published the first printed book in the English language, Raoul le Fevre's Le Recueil des Histories de Troyes, which he had translated in about 1473-74. It is supposed that Caxton financed the publication but that it was actually printed by Veldener at Louvain. Caxton returned to England in 1476, where he lived for the next 15 years, dying in London in 1491. Regardless of what some critics may say of Caxton's lack of scholarship and education, his place in history is deserved more because of his ability as a linguist and editor, than as a printer and publisher. Even so, he printed some 18,000 pages, most in folio size, and almost 80 separate books. He did most of the administrative work of the press through his three main assistants, Wynkyn de Worde, Richard Pynson, and Robert Copland. In all, Caxton translated at least 22 books; he may well have translated others that were never published. It is thought that Caxton probably brought his bookbinding tools from Bruges upon his return to England, because two of his stamps are very similar to those used on books found contemporaneously in the city. Caxton's stamps were used after his death by his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, and some, thereafter, by Henry Jacobi. (50, 140)
C clamp
A C-shaped, general purpose clamp that grips between the open ends of the "C" by means of a long, flat-ended screw that threads through one end and presses the clamped material against the other end. It is used mainly for holding leather or book boards while using the SPOKESHAVE. It is called a "G-clamp" in Great Britain. (183)
cedar marble
A cover marble executed by sprinkling black and brown coloring on the covers, followed by orange in various places to give a cloudlike effect. This is followed by red placed near the orange. When this is dry, the covers are coated two or three times with yellow, which is allowed to penetrate evenly into the leather. (97, 152)
cedar oil
A colorless to pale yellow essential oil distilled from the wood of various cedars (Juniperus virginiana, 1. procera, and others), and used by some restorers in a mixture of anhydrous lanolin, beeswax, and hexane. as a leather dressing. The cedarwood oil is said to act both as a preservative and as an agent which aids in forming a bond between the lanolin and wax in leather. See also: LEATHER DRESSINGS. (130, 291)
cellulose
The chief constituent of the cell walls of all plants and of many fibrous products, including paper and cloth. Cellulose is by far the most abundant organic substance found in nature. It is a complex polymeric carbohydrate (C6H10O5) n, having the same percentage composition as starch, i.e., 44.4% carbon, 6.2% hydrogen, and 49.4% oxygen, and it also yields only glucose on complete hydrolysis by acid. The portion of a cellulosic material that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide is termed ALPHA CELLULOSE; the portion that dissolves in an alkaline solution and precipitates upon acidification is known as BETA CELLULOSE; and the portion that dissolves in an alkaline solution but does not precipitate upon acidification is called GAMMA CELLULOSE. See also: CELLULOSE ACETATE; CELLULOSE CHAIN; CELLULOSE FIBERS; CELLULOSE NITRATE; COTTON LINTERS; HEMICELLULOSES; LIGNIN; PAPER. (72, 198)
cellulose acetate
An acetate salt of cellulose, produced from COTTON LINTERS and used in archival work: 1) as a photographic film base (often called "safety film" since it is not readily combustible); and 2) in conjunction with an adhesive, such as one of the polyvinyl resins, in laminating, heat sealing, etc. Cellulose acetate is manufactured in a wide variety of thicknesses, ranging from 0.001 to 0.005 inch, and is clear, hard and glossy. It has little tear strength and has almost the same HYGROSCOPICITY as cellulose itself; however, when moist, it does not stretch as much as paper. (31, 34, 81, 303)
cellulose chain
cellulose molecule
A term used to describe the cellulose molecule, which appears to be built up of between 150 and 1.500 very simple units, in the form of a long, thin structure, not unlike a chain. Each link of the chain consists of a slightly modified form of the common sugar, glucose; the strength of paper depends to a large extent on the continuity of these linkages. Destructive agents, which can weaken and open the individual links of the chain, cause it to break into smaller lengths, resulting in what is generally considered to be BRITTLENESS in the paper. The mechanical strength of any aggregate of cellulose fibers, such as paper, decreases in response to the reduction in chain length, the process continuing ultimately to the point where only glucose remains. (198)
cellulose ester
An ester of cellulose, such as CELLULOSE ACETATE or CELLULOSE NITRATE.
cellulose fibers
The basic raw material used in the manufacture of paper and other cellulose products. Cellulose usually exists in association with substantial amounts of other substances that are removed insofar as possible in the papermaking process. An exception to this is the seed hair fibers, or COTTON LINTERS, which exist as almost pure cellulose. The approximate cellulose content of some of the materials used in making papers are: Material % Cellulose Cotton 98 Ramie 86 Hemp 65 Jute 58 Deciduous woods 41-42 Coniferous woods 41-44 Cornstalks 43 Wheat straw 42 The cellulose fibers used in making paper have certain inherent properties which enable them to form a web, i e.. a sheet of paper. including: 1) hydrophilicity, which permits them to be readily dispersed in water; 2) a fine structure which permits FIBRILLATION; 3) sufficient fiber length to form a highly entangled web of considerable strength; and 4) the ability to form hydrogen bonds between fibers as the web dries, thus providing additional strength in the sheet of paper. (144)
cellulose film
A transparent film produced from cellulose fibers by a process that involves steeping, shredding, and converting the fibers into a viscose solution, or cellulose xanthate, which is subsequently extruded to convert it into a film. It is made in a limited range of thicknesses, between 0.00085 and 0.0016 inch, and, when rendered moisture resistant, may be used to seal documents, book leaves, etc., for protection. It is a fairly flexible film of considerable strength. (81)
cellulose nitrate
A film made from cotton waste, wood, or waste cellulose film. It is produced by the nitration of cellulose, usually with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. It has been used as a film base for photographic purposes, as well as to encase documents, book leaves, etc.; however, its flammability, the fact that it causes severe deterioration of the materials it supposedly protects (because of the generation of oxides of nitrogen which yield nitric acid in the presence of water), and the fact that it cannot be manufactured in thickness down to 0.001 inch, has precluded its use in preservation work. (34, 81)
cellulose varnish
A cellulose-base varnish (usually cellulose nitrate), available in an aerosol dispenser, and useful as a protective sealing film over the lettering on a book cover, if used in moderation. It is flammable. (92)
cement
1. A term meaning to bond together or to adhere with a liquid adhesive. 2. A liquid adhesive having a solvent base composed of a synthetic elastomer resin. 3. An inorganic paste. (222, 309)
center and corner piece style
A common style of decoration, essentially Eastern in origin, featuring a center ornament, circular or (occasionally) oval in shape, and often ARABESQUE, in combination with corner pieces generally made up of a quarter segment of the center ornament. The style was common on the Continent and especially in England from about 1580 to 1620. See also: CENTERPIECE. (243, 347)
center fold
See: CENTER SPREAD.
center-fold sewing
A generic term sometimes used with reference to the sewing of a book through the folds of the sections. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; MACHINE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING; TAPE SEWING.
centerpiece
1. A finishing stamp, usually ARABESQUE, blocked in the center of the cover and generally used in combination with center pieces or corner stamps. It was a popular form of decoration in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Also called "centerstamp." 2. A piece of metal, usually embossed and engraved, and fastened to the cover of a book. (236, 259)
center spread
The two center pages of a section or, more specifically, the two center pages of a periodical issue, printed side by side on a continuous sheet so that there is no margin between them. Such a publication must be sewn through the center fold to avoid obscuring part of the printed matter. Also called "center fold." (316)
centerstamp
See: CENTERPIECE.
center-to-center
1. The distance from the center of one punched hole (punched through the paper for side sewing or fold sewing) to the center of the next hole. 2. The distance between holes punched through loose-leaf papers, or the covers of a post binding, etc. (83)
center tools
The ornamental stamps on the spine of a volume between the raised bands. Of the customary six spaces, the title is normally in space two (from the top), the author in space four, the year of publication in space six, with "center tools" in spaces one, three, five and six (just above the date). (94, 261, 371)
centipoise
One hundredth of a poise. It is a unit for measuring the viscosity of an adhesive. The viscosity of water at 20° C. is approximately one centipoise. (222)
ceramic paper fibers
Noncellulosic paper fibers produced from inorganic materials. Ceramic fibers include all refractory fibers made of alumina, zirconia. thoria, magnesia, fused silica, hafnia, berylia, titanium oxide, potassium titanate, and their mixtures, with or without silica. By definition, monooxide ceramics, such as alumina ceramics, are composed of at least 80% oxides. More often they contain 90% or more base oxides, while special products may contain 99% and sometimes 100%. The main group of ceramic fibers is composed of silica in admixture with special oxides, such as aluminum and magnesium oxides, barium, and calcium. Ceramic fibers may be produced in numerous ways, including, blowing methods, spinning methods, continuous-spinning methods, colloidal evaporation processes, vapor deposition, single-crystal and whisker methods, oxidation, crystallization, pseudomorphic alteration, etc. Ceramic paper fiber is not used in book production because of the very high cost of the fibers as compared with wood and other organic fibers; however, such papers do print and fold well and are considerably more durable. (42)
certification plan
A proposal for library binding drawn up in the 1930s by the Joint Committee of the American Library Association and the Library Binding Institute, to enable library binders to apply for certification by agreeing to meet certain requirements, including: 1. Submitting samples of their work so as to demonstrate the bindery's capability of producing so called Class "A" work (the samples being reviewed by a board appointed by the Joint Committee); 2. Proving responsibility and reliability by means of sworn answers to questions, and permitting the investigation of replies; 3. Providing satisfactory references; 4. Carrying sufficient insurance; 5. Pledging to conduct the business of the bindery fairly, treat customers honestly, and maintain minimum standards and good labor conditions; and 6. Becoming a member of the Library Binding Institute The certification of library binders is now solely under the jurisdiction of the Library Binding Institute. (131)
certified library bindery
A bookbinding establishment in the United States or Canada that specializes in library binding and meets the minimum specifications of the Library Binding Institute, as outlined in the CERTIFICATION PLAN. A certified library binder is defined as one who produces binding which will achieve two objectives: 1) meet the requirements of libraries for an end product capable of withstanding the rigors of normal library circulation or use; and 2) provide maximum reader usability. A certified library binder is required to warrant that the binding covered by his invoice is Library Binding and complies with all requirements of the Library Binding Institute Standards for Library Binding, except as noted in the invoice. Certified library binders are also required to adhere to the Trade Practice Regulation for the Library Binding Industry, maintain compulsory insurance to protect the customer's property in their custody, and participate in the industry quality control program. (131, 208)
cessing
A technique used to allow excess tan liquor to drain from hides and skins, particularly the former. The hides are piled up flat on a wooden stillage or pallet and covered to prevent overdrying the surface and edges of the pile. Cessing is also used in place of HORSING UP when it is necessary to have a flat leather with no creases. Also called "piling." (306)
chained books
Books that in the past were attached to shelves, reading desks, pulpits, pews, etc., by means of chains. From the 15th to the early 18th century, books were secured in this manner to prevent them from being stolen. The chains used for this purpose varied in length from nearly 3 feet to almost 5 feet, while the links ranged in size from 1 1/2 to almost 3 inches in length, with a width of about 1/2 inch. The problem of the chains breaking when twisted was partially overcome by the inclusion of a swivel in the middle or at one end. When the books were meant to be stood on end the chains were usually attached to the fore edge of the upper cover (and occasionally the lower) by means of a ring held to the board by a length of thin brass which was bent around the edge of the cover and riveted in place. Often, however, the ring was not used, the chain being attached directly to the clip on the cover. This required that the book be shelved fore edge out, a method of shelving that endured well into the 17th century, even when chains were not used. Books meant to lie permanently on lecterns, or the like, often had the chains attached to the bottom or top edge of the lower cover. Chains were used, it has been said, because "The thievish disposition of some that enter into libraries to learn no good there, hath made it necessary to secure the innocent books, even the Sacred volumes themselves, with chains—which were better deserved by those persons. who have too much learning to be hanged, and too little to be honest." The practice of chaining books began to die out by the middle of the 17th century when it became a more common practice to shelve books with their spines out. See PLATE 1, (46, 236)
chain lines
chain marks
The widely spaced watermark lines, about 25 mm apart, parallel to the shorter sides of a sheet of laid paper, caused by the "chain wires," i.e., the wires to which the finer laid wires of the MOLD (1) are attached for support. They usually correspond to the position of the bars or ribs of the mold to which they are often fastened. Occasionally, the shadow of the rib can be seen on either side of the chain line. Generally the chain lines run vertically in the leaves of a folio, horizontally in a quarto, and again vertically in an octavo. Sometimes, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, this rule is reversed because of the use of a split sheet, or the use of a double mold, resulting in "turned chains." (69, 136, 225)
chain stitch
1. See KETTLE STITCH. 2. An ornamental stitch in an embroidered binding that resembles the links of a chain, and is used in working in silver and other colored threads into the binding. (111)
chain wires
See: CHAIN LINES.
chalk
See: CALCIUM CARBONATE.
chalking
1. The process of applying pumice, brick dust, red earth, or a similar material, to the GOLD CUSHION prior to laying the gold leaf on it for cutting. Chalking helps prevent the leaf from sticking to the cushion. 2. A printing defect caused by the use of an ink that has been over-reduced, or an ink that is not suitable for the paper, causing the ink vehicle to soak into the paper leaving the pigment on the surface where it can easily be smudged or rubbed off. 3. A condition encountered in some papers where fine particles of pigment break off the sheet during finishing, converting, printing, or subsequent use.
chalky appearance
The surface of a coated paper that is lacking in gloss. The condition is probably due more to the type of coating material used, as well as to the coating process, than to the degree of calendering which the paper undergoes. (17)
chamfered edges
See: BEVELED BOARDS.
chamois
Originally, a soft. pliable leather made from the skin of the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), a small goatlike antelope found in the high mountainous areas of Europe and the Caucasus. Chamois was at one time used to some extent in bookbinding, but is seldom, if ever, used today because it is hygroscopic, and, if kept dry by artificial means, tends to become hard and prone to cracking. The original chamois was a vegetable-tanned leather. Today, the leather called "chamois" is a suede-finished leather made from the FLESH SPLIT of a sheep- or lambskin, or from sheep or lamb from which the grain has been removed by FRIZZING (3), and tanned by processes involving the oxidation of fish or marine animal oils in the skin, using either only the oils, in which case it is a full-oil tannage, or, in a first stage using formaldehyde and then the oils, in which case it is a combination tannage. In the United States, the term "chamois" without qualification, is restricted to the flesh split of a sheepskin tanned solely with oils. The old term for the full oil process was "chamoising." Also sometimes called "shammy." (170, 306, 325, 363)
chamoletting
An old term for MARBLING.
champlevé bindings
Bindings produced between the 11th and 13th centuries. The process involved cutting designs into a thin sheet of gold or copper, which formed the cover, with cavities filled with enamel. Sometimes the enamel was limited to the decoration of borders and corners. Champlevé can be distinguished from CLOISONNÉ BINDINGS by the irregular widths of the metal enclosing the enameled areas. (124, 280, 357)
charcoal drawing paper
A drawing paper produced in such a manner as to be suitable for use with charcoal or pencils. It generally has a high cotton fiber content. It is made in basis weights of 60 to 75 pounds. (17)
chased edges
See: GAUFFERED EDGES.
check binding
A general term for the style of binding in which the sheets are wire stabbed or stitched, and then covered with lightweight strawboards, or checkbook cover boards, which are lined with plain paper, marbled paper, or cloth, and cut flush. Some have round corners. This style of binding is not rounded and backed and has a tight back. Books under 3/4 inch in thickness are generally side stitched, while those over that thickness are nailed or studded. The term derives from the method of binding checkbooks for banks. (256, 300)
check pile
A procedure for obtaining the desired number of sheets in a PAD without having to count each group. The exact number of sheets is counted for one (check) pad, and, using this pile as a "check pile," the approximate number of sheets is placed in an adjacent pile. Sheets are added or removed from the second pile until the heights of the piles are the same, at which time the second pile supposedly has the same number of sheets as the "check pile." A better method is to use a PAD COUNTER (2). (74)
cheeking
The process of reducing the thickness of the head areas of unhaired skins by means of splitting.
cheesecloth
A lightweight, unsized cotton fabric, loosely woven and used to a limited extent in edition binding as a spine lining fabric. (120)
chemical wood pulp
A paper pulp prepared from both coniferous and deciduous trees, in which the LIGNIN and other undesirable materials are removed by cooking the wood with an alkaline sodium sulfide solution, or a sodium sulfite solution, leaving the cellulose fibers in an aqueous suspension of the dissolved lignins, etc. The fibers are washed and are then used "as is' to produce unbleached paper or are bleached to produce white paper. The fibers from coniferous trees are ribbonlike and have thin walls. Generally, two distinct types of fibers can be distinguished: 1) a broad fiber of a width of about 0.05 mm and a length of about 2.5 to 4 mm, and 2) a narrower fiber about 0.02 mm wide and 1.5 to 5 mm long. The fibers of deciduous trees are shorter than those of the conifers, being between 1and 1.5 mm long, but they are usually thicker. In chemical tests to determine the presence of chemical wood pulp in paper, an iodine-zinc chloride solution gives a pale violet, pale blue, or reddish blue, depending upon the type of chemical pulp. (93, 98, 143)
chemise
1. A cover of SILK or CHEVROTAIN, used in the 15th century to protect leather bookbindings. The chemise was sometimes used in the Middle Ages in lieu of binding. 2. A loose cover for a book with pockets into which the boards are inserted. 3. Broadly, the canvas covering used to protect leather-bound stationery bindings. (140)
chestnut
The wood of the European chestnut (Castanea sativa) and the American chestnut (C. dentata), from which tannin is extracted. Chestnut tannin extract was used extensively in France and other European countries, as well as in the United States, in the latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century. In the United States its use has declined sharply since the introduction of the Oriental chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica), which has virtually destroyed the American chestnut. Today Italy is the largest producer of chestnut wood extract for tanning. The bark of the chestnut is not used because it imparts a dark color to the tannin, and its high sugar content would result in a higher percentage of soluble non-tans in the extract. The usual tannin content of the southern European chestnut is 10 to 13%, or higher, which is considerably higher than that obtained from trees in northern climates. The wood does not seem to reach its highest tannin content until the trees are at least 30 years old. Chestnut extract tans rapidly and produces a firm leather. If used alone, however, it may impart a reddish color to the leather that is not desirable; therefore, it is used in combination with quebracho, mimosa, myrabolans, and valonia. Chestnut is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins, and has a naturally low pH value. It also has a relatively low salts content and a high acids content. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175, 306, 363)
cheverell
A goatskin PARCHMENT that has been converted into a supple and strong leather with the characteristic bold grain pattern. It proved to be an exceptionally durable bookbinding leather. The conversion was effected by a simultaneous tannage using alum and oil, followed by intensive fatliquoring and staking. Cheverell was used in England, France. and Italy during the 13th to 15th centuries. (291)
chevrette
A leather produced from the skin of a young goat which is being, or has recently been, weaned, or the skin of an immature goat. Sometimes, any lightweight goatskin or kidskin is referred to as "chevrette." (61)
chevrotain
A leather produced from the skin of any of several very small deer-like mammals of Asia and West Africa, and used in England, principally in the Middle Ages, for chemises. Like the skins of does, lambs and other very young animals, it is soft and supple. It is sometimes inaccurately referred to as CHEVRETTE. (115)
Chicago posts
Metal screw posts having two heads, one fastened to a full length post, which is drilled and tapped with a thread, the other attached to a shorter post, which is threaded to be inserted in the main post. The purpose of such posts is to allow additional sheets to be added to the book. (256)
chicory
An herb (Cichorium intybus), at one time added to size solutions to ad just the tone of newly washed book leaves so as to make them match the shade of the unwashed leaves. (83)
chiffon silk
chiffon lining
A sheer, very lightweight fabric in plain weave, made of hand-twisted single yarns of silk and used at one time to repair and reinforce torn leaves, documents, etc. Although its weight and sheerness permit even the finest print to be legible, it is little used now because of its lack of permanence. (81, 120)
China clay
A white, powdery material arising from the decomposition of granite feldspar. The term originally applied to the beneficiated KAOLIN mined in Europe, but is now applied to all beneficiated kaolin. See also: CLAY, (143)
China paper
A soft, very thin WATERLEAF (1) paper, produced in China, and elsewhere, from bamboo fibers. It has a pale yellow color and a very fine texture. The usual sheet size is 57 by 27 inches. Is is used for proofs of woodcuts, for woodcuts to he mounted on a stronger paper, and, now and then, for superior editions of books. It is also called "Chinese paper," or "Indian proof paper." (17, 69) "
Chinese" Chippendale bindings
A class of CHIPPENDALE BINDINGS. These bindings were generally covered in red morocco, and were tooled in gold with designs representing "Chinese" motifs and symbols, following the vogue represented in the decorative arts of the mid-18th century. The bindings often featured rococo frames made up of recurving and serrated motifs forming irregular compartments and perches for beehives with bees in flight, boats, Chinese archers and spearmen, columns and pilasters, doves, flowers, grapes and other fruit, horses rising from the sea, lions supporting shields, phoenixes, etc. (347)
Chinese ink
An INK of considerable antiquity, made from lampblack or soot obtained by burning vegetable oils, such as sesame or wood (tung oil). The quality of the oil is of major importance in this type of ink. The collected soot is sifted; heated along with white, transparent oxhide, or fish glue; and pounded in a mortar until it is soft and pliable and can be molded into sticks. This type of ink, having a base of carbon, is very stable when properly prepared, and, not having acidity, has no harmful effects on paper; however, it is easily affected by water. (130, 143)
Chinese marble
A type of cover marble, consisting of solid dark brown over the entire leather cover, with whiting in spots or streaks, over which blue and then large spots of red are thrown. The whiting not covered by color is washed off when the covers are dry. (95)
Chinese paper
See: CHINA PAPER (1).
Chinese wax
A white or yellowish crystalline WAX, formed on the branches of the ash tree (Fraxinus chinensis) from the secretion of the coccus insect (Coccus ceriferus). It resembles SPERMACETI WAX, but is harder, more friable and has a higher melting point (80 to 83° C.). It is used in polishing leather, sizing paper, etc. (291)
Chinese white
A dense form of zinc white—zinc oxide (ZnO)—sometimes used as a bonding agent when coloring the edges of books. (335)
chipboard
A thin, hard-surfaced, grayish board, normally produced from paper stock, including waste papers. It has a relatively low density, and is available in the thicknesses of 0.006 inch and up. It is sometimes used in edition binding for covering boards; in library binding and craft binding, however, it is never used for anything but lining board. (256, 277)
Chippendale bindings
A style of book decoration, where the books were generally covered in red morocco, and were tooled in gold with elaborate rococo borders of swirls and acanthus leaves enclosing areas dispersed with meshes of dotted lines. Incorporated in all this were various figured tools, including dancing angels, trumpeters, doves, fruit, musicians, swooping phoenixes, etc. See also: "CHINESE" CHIPPENDALE BINDINGS, (347)
chiseled leather
See: CUIR-CISELÉ.
Chivers, Cedric
c 1853-1929
A British bookbinder sometimes referred to as the dean of library binders. Chivers developed a method of hand oversewing, in which the stitches pass diagonally through the paper; it is still in use today and is called the "Chivers method." One of the major disadvantages of the usual method of overcasting, or oversewing, groups of individual leaves which are subsequently to be sewn on tapes or cords in the usual manner of hand sewing, is that the book often has a tendency to open up and become strained between the groups; this occurs only when the paper is unusually thick. Chivers' solution was a method by which three holes are punched in each of the sections in such a manner that their positioning alternates from section to section; they are also punched obliquely through the paper to eliminate strain due to side pull. Thread passes through and returns in such a manner that every section is sewn to the next two sections on each side. Chivers was also famous for his DURO-FLEXIBLE BINDING, as well as his VELLUCENT BINDINGS. (94, 236)
chloramine t
sodium p-toluenesulphonchloramide
(C7H7CINNaO2S . 3H20). White crystals prepared from p-toluenesulphonamide and sodium hypochlorite, and used in a 2 aqueous solution to remove fox marks and stains from paper, and also for general bleaching purposes. It is applied directly to the paper by means of a soft brush or by soaking. It is very difficult to wash out and failure to rid the paper of it may result in the formation of highly destructive hydrochloric acid. (102, 265)
chlorine
A commonly occurring, nonmetallic, univalent and polyvalent element (Cl), belonging to the halogens, and used, generally in the form of chlorine dioxide (ClO2), or hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2), as a bleach to whiten paper pulp, usually in one or more of the final stages in a multi-stage sequence. Its use as a bleaching agent in paper manufacture began in 1774 but its deleterious effects, while noticed almost immediately, were largely misunderstood or ignored. Chlorine residues are extremely difficult and expensive to remove, and many chlorine compounds break down slowly forming highly destructive hydrochloric acid in the process. Chlorine is also used as a disinfectant in leather manufacture. (198, 235)
chlorine bath
A dilute solution of CHLORINE and water (or the commercial product, Chlorox, diluted with water), used to remove stains from paper, as well as for general bleaching purposes. For the disadvantages of using chlorine solutions for bleaching purposes, see CHLORINE.
chlorine dioxide
A heavy, explosive gas. (ClO2), produced by the action of chlorine or sodium chlorite, and used in bleaching paper pulp from a water solution, usually in one or more of the final stages of multi-stage sequence. See also: CHLORINE.
chlorine number
The amount in grams of chlorine gas, or its equivalent in bleaching powder, that can be absorbed by 100 grams of oven dry paper pulp in a specified period of time and under specified conditions. (17)
chlorine water
See: CHLORINE BATH.
chloropicrin
A colorless liquid (CCl3NO2), having a very toxic vapor. It is prepared by treating sodium picrate with chlorine, or calcium picrate with bleaching power, and is used at times in fumigating books.
chop cut
A method of trimming newly printed sheets before folding, in which the large sheet is trimmed on all four sides but the individual leaves are trimmed in the process of separation, after which no further trim is required. This procedure is largely restricted to economy printing. The normal procedure is to trim all four sides of the large sheet, cut it apart to separate the sections, and then trim each individual section. "Chop cut" cannot be used if the individual sheet or section bleeds. (329)
chrome glue
A light-colored, easily worked glue made from scraps of chrome-tanned leather. It is said to be inferior in strength to regular hide glue. (81)
chrome liquor
A solution of basic chromic salt used in CHROME TANNING leather. It is prepared by treating a strong solution of sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7 . 2H2O) with a reducing agent, such as sulfur dioxide (SO), or a mixture of glucose and sulfuric acid. (305)
chrome oxide
chromic oxide
A green, insoluble powder (Cr2O3), which is the basis for many salts of chromium used in tanning leather by the chrome process. It is also used as a light- and heat-fast green pigment. (305)
chrome retan
A process in leather manufacture in which the skins are tanned throughout their thickness by the chrome process and, subsequently, are further treated with vegetable and/ or synthetic agents. The retanning agents penetrate the skin deeply, but do not necessarily penetrate throughout the skin. See also: SEMI-CHROME TANNAGE. (61)
chrome tanning
A method of tannage stemming back to the discovery, in 1858, that leather could be produced by treating skins with basic chromium sulfate (Cr(OH)SO4). The two basic methods employed today are the one bath and two bath methods, the former being most often used. The most widely used chemical in chrome tanning is sodium dichromate (sodium bichromate) (Na2Cr7O7 . H2O), from which chromium sulfate is produced. As in vegetable tanned leather, the degree of control exercised in the tanning process has great influence on the nature of the leather produced. If, for example, the final pH of a chrome-tanned leather is too low, the leather will be flat, hard, and wet, and may show grease spots on the surface; if it is too high, the leather will probably be plump, loose, dry, and may have a drawn grain or be too soft in the BLUE SORT. It is, therefore, imperative in chrome tanning to obtain the optimum pH, i.e., 3.4 to 3.5 in the one bath method, or 3.2 to 3.4 in the combination single and double bath method, and to maintain it. The two bath method has almost been completely superseded by the one bath tannage, except in certain cases where the older two bath process is thought to give a particularly uniform tannage and a deposit of colloidal sulfur in the leather. The major characteristics of chrome-tanned leather are its blue-green color and absence of filling power, i.e., an empty tannage. Chrome-tanned leather tends to be softer and stretchier than vegetable-tanned leather, and is very stable in water. Unlike vegetable-tanned or alum-tawed skins, chrome-tanned leather can withstand boiling water and has a shrinkage temperature higher at times than 100° C.; however. it does not resist perspiration or organic acids well and is difficult to emboss. In addition, it does not take gold tooling well and is difficult to fabricate in such operations as turning-in, etc. It is, on the other hand, a very durable leather. (101, 164, 248, 306, 363)
chromium sulfate
chromic sulfate
A salt of chromium (Cr2(OH)SO4), in the form of green crystals that are soluble in water and form an acid solution. It is used in CHROME TANNING. (304)
chromo paper
A heavily coated paper suitable for color printing. Surface characteristics said to enhance color printing include smoothness, uniformity of ink receptivity, high total reflectance, and neutrality of shade, which means the paper is truly white rather than tinted. The term is not generally used in the United States. See also: COATED ART PAPER. (17, 156, 324)
circles
Finishing tools in the shape of 1/3, 1/2, 3/4, and full circles, in sizes generally ranging from 1/4 to 2 1/2 inches in diameter. See also: GOUGE. (97, 137)
circuit edges
The projecting flexible covers of limp bindings turned over to protect the leaves and edges of books, usually of a devotional nature. The circuit edge differs from the yapp edge in that the overlap of the cover is not continuous. The covering leather is turned over at head and tail, with an independent flap at the fore edge. The corners are square. This technique allows the flaps to fold flat onto the edges. Sometimes called "divinity circuit," or "divinity edges." See also: YAPP STYLE. (66, 94, 264)
citric acid
A colorless, crystalline or white powdery tricarboxylic acid (C6H8O7). Citric acid is used to remove ink, and similar stains from paper, and is particularly useful in removing iron stains. Its advantage over chlorine solutions is that, being a weak and volatile organic acid, it is much less damaging to the paper.
cl
Abbreviation for CLOTH.
clamp
A device designed to bind, constrict, or press two or more parts together so as to hold them firmly in their relative positions for some subsequent operation, to allow adhesives to set, or for trimming, printing, and the like. They may be operated by hand, mechanically, by air pressure, or hydraulically. (145)
clamp dwell
The time interval of the holding action of a CLAMP. Although "dwell time" may be controlled manually, as with the clamp of a hand-operated board chopper, the term relates more accurately to the automatic release of a clamp, such as in a BUILDING-IN MACHINE, which holds the pressure for a pre-set length of time. When a clamp does not release immediately upon completion of an operation, it is said to have a "long" dwell. The typical GUILLOTINE cutting machine has such a dwell; the clamp remains on the pile being cut until the knife has risen to a safe height, which prevents the knife from rippling the sheets on its return motion and thus disturbing the pile. (145, 320)
clam shell coverer
A machine used in edition binding to apply paper covers to side stitched books that are not rounded and backed. The machine glues the spine, rolls or presses the cover onto it, and carries the book to the cover breaker where the back and both sides along the spine are pressed by formers. Book sizes handled range from a minimum of 7 by 5 inches to a maximum of 12 by 9 inches, and up to 1 1/8 inches in thickness (with a special attachment for books up to 2 inches thick), at speeds up to 160 books per minute. (320)
clasps
See illustration The hinged fasteners of brass, precious metals, iron, etc., often elaborately chased, and intended to secure the covers of books, ledgers, albums, etc. They are sometimes provided with a lock, and are designed to hold the covers of a book closed, or when provided with a lock, to prevent opening by unauthorized persons. Clasps are attached after forwarding is completed except for the board papers, because by that time the final thickness of the book is known and any rivets on the inside of the boards will be covered by the board papers. Because a single clasp has a tendency to distort the boards, two are generally used, and are usually placed opposite the centers of the second and fifth panels of the spine. All metal-hinged clasps have to be made to fit the individual book, as a perfect fit is necessary; however, where the hinge consists of a leather strap, adjustments can easily be made. Stretching of the leather with use, thus causing looseness, can be overcome by making the strap of leather over vellum, which also provides additional strength. The use of clasps appears to be as old as the codex itself. In its earliest form, which was Coptic bindings, the clasp consisted of a strap attached to the fore edge of the upper cover and wound around the book over the fore edge several times, the bone attached to the end of the strap being tucked between the strap and the lower cover. Another method, which may actually have been used more often than the strap, consisted of the plaited thong with loops which fit over bone pegs at the edge of the lower cover. A clasp of this type seems to have been used in England at least as early as the 12th century. The strap was fastened to the fore edge of the upper cover, and the end, which had a metal-rimmed hole, was taken around to the middle of the lower cover and was attached to a metal pin. English bookbinders of the 14th century began using two straps instead of just one, something which had been done earlier and more often on the Continent of Europe. The hole and pin type was more or less abandoned early in the 14th century and replaced by clasps and catches attached to the fore edge. Initially, each clasp consisted of a strip of leather having a metal hook on one end. Later, the metal part of the clasp was the full thickness of the book and was sometimes attached to the board by means of a metal hinge. In bindings of the 15th and 16th centuries, and probably earlier, the location of the clasp is a reasonably accurate indication of the country of origin. English and French bindings usually had them attached to the upper cover with the catch on the lower, while bindings of the Netherlands and Germany had the catch on the upper cover. Italian binders often attached the clasp to the upper covers and often used as many as four clasps. The velvet-covered books of the royal collection in England in the 15th and 16th centuries often had ornamental gilt clasps, which were often combined with elaborately ornamented gilt cornerpieces and centerpieces which helped prevent abrasion of the velvet. The use of metal clasps began to decline early in the 16th century, probably because they could not be securely attached to the pasteboards which were replacing boards made of wood. The weight, size, and material of the books being published at that time did not require clasps, and clasps were no longer economically feasible for the normal run of books. In most cases they were replaced by TIES (1). Clasps made of brass were still used in the 16th century for some books which were bound with boards of wood, and silver clasps and cornerpieces were often used on small Bibles and other devotional works as late as the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In certain German bindings, however, e.g., Bibles, clasps were used continuously until the end of the 18th century. his was notably true in America, for example, where almost all German-American bindings, e.g., the Saur Bibles, were issued in calfskin over wood with two heavy claps attached to the lower cover. Brass clasps were revived during the latter part of the 19th century, mainly for Bibles and prayer books, but also for photograph albums, diaries, and the like. They were often attached to metal frames which protected the edges of boards. (83, 105, 236)
Class "A" library binding
Library binding that meets the standards set forth in the minimum specifications promulgated by the Joint Committee of the American Library Association and the Library Binding Institute. The qualification for Class "A" binding, as accepted today, is set forth, defined and regulated exclusively by the Library Binding Institute, as detailed in its Standard for Library Binding.
clay
A colloidal, lusterless, fine-grained, earthy substance which generally develops plasticity when wetted but is permanently hard when fired. Chemically clays are aluminosilicates, which do not form large crystals. The finely divided aluminosilicates, which are responsible for the properties associated with clays, are called "clay minerals." Clays with a preponderance of the clay mineral "kaolinite" are used both as fillers and as coating pigments in the manufacture of paper. Other clays are used in small amounts. Used in excess, as it is in some art papers, clay becomes an adulterant to the detriment of the strength and durability of paper. See also: ATTAPULGITE CLAY; BENTONITE; KAOLlN; PAPER CLAY. (17, 235, 343)
clay-finished paper
A paper, such as imitation art paper, coated with finely pulverized clay to impart a smooth finish suitable for halftone illustrations. Such papers present difficulty in binding, as they are difficult to sew (especially to oversew), and there is often the tendency for the clay to separate from the base paper, especially under humid circumstances or if the paper becomes wet. In addition, they are unusually stiff and frequently must be scored. (52, 278)
clay tablets
The earliest form of the "book." Clay tablets were generally used for records and were inscribed in cuneiform writing on wet clay, which when hardened was usually protected by a cover (outer shell), also of clay, which was inscribed with a copy, abstract, or title of the contents. (12, 156)
cleaning
A general term used to describe the removal of mud, dirt, dust, grease, stains, etc., from the covers or leaves of a book, map, print, etc. Cleaning is done in a variety of manners, depending on the nature of the soiling, the material soiled, and the facilities available. It may range from gentle rubbing with bread crumbs to complete washing and restoration. (173, 335)
cleaning off
A term descriptive of a more or less obsolete process of removing excess adhesive from the spine of a book subsequent to lacing-in. Cleaning off is generally done by applying paste to the spine, and, when the glue has softened, scraping off both paste and excess glue with a CLEANING-OFF STICK or plow trimmings. Once a book has been rounded and backed and its shape has been set, the glue on the spine, other than that between the sections, is not required, and, in fact, should be removed to permit greater openability of the book and also to clear the sections of excess glue as a consideration of the binder of the future who may have to rebind the book. Cleaning off also helps in setting the shape of the spine and makes for a cleaner, smoother spine—factors which are very important in the case of a tight back binding. The increasing use of resinous adhesives in hand binding, such as the polyvinyl group, in lieu of hot glues, has meant that cleaning off has become more difficult, if not impossible, even though the use of these adhesives makes shaping the spine of even greater importance. The plasticized polyvinyls are neither softened by paste nor are they soluble in water; furthermore, they do not seem to affect openability adversely. If, however, removal is necessary, they are alcohol soluble. (83, 236, 261)
cleaning-off stick
A long, thin stick with a rounded but not pointed end, used to clean off excess animal glue from the spine of a book. See also: CLEANING OFF. (172)
clearing
The process of lightening the color and removing metallic stains from the grain surface of newly tanned leather. Clearing is done by drumming the leather in a cold solution of weak acid, e.g., a.25 or 1% solution of oxalic (H2C2O4) or sulfuric (H2SO4) acid; if heavy STRIPPING (1) or clearing is required, or if the original tannage was not satisfactory for the leather required, it is not uncommon to retan the leather at this time. (306)
cleat
See: KERF.
cloisonné bindings
Enamelled bindings produced during the 11th century, mainly by Greek and Italian craftsmen. Cloisonné is a technique of surface decoration in porcelain enamel on metal, in which each color area is surrounded by a thin line of metal, flush with the surface of the enamel. Thin fillets of flattened wire are set on edge and soldered to the metallic base in the desired pattern. The cloisons, or cells, are then filled with a colored vitreous composition, fired, ground smooth, and polished. Cloisonné can be distinguished from CHAMPLEVÉ BINDINGS by the uniform thinness of the metallic lines. (124, 280, 347)
closed assembly time
The time interval between the completion of assembly of the parts to be adhered and the application of heat, pressure, or both. See also: ASSEMBLY TIME; OPEN ASSEMBLY TIME. (309)
closed bolts
closed folds closed sections
Any fold in a section that is not perforated or cut during the process of folding, or before the binding process is completed. See also: BOLT. (256)
closed joint
That type of JOINT (1) which is formed when the covering boards are laced on, i.e., where the boards are right up to the backing shoulders. Also called 'tight joint." See also: FRENCH JOINT; LACING-IN; SUPPORTED FRENCH JOINT. (12)
close formation
The closeness of texture and FORMATION of a sheet of paper, i.e., a sheet in which the formation is uniform and free from a WILD (1) or porous appearance when viewed by transmitted light. It is frequently the sizing or loading agents that "close" the sheet by filling the interstices between fibers. A well-closed sheet has more RATTLE and hardness, and generally greater opacity. (42)
cloth
A generic term for all of the fabrics employed in bookbinding and conservation. Cloth is made by weaving, felting, knitting, knotting, bonding, or crocheting natural or synthetic fibers and filaments, in various textures, finishes, and weights. It may be plain, filled, coated, or impregnated. Woven cloths, with the exceptions of certain "double warp" cloths, have a warp (the threads that run the length of the cloth over and under the filling), and a filling, also called the weft, running across the grain at right angles to the warp. Both are generally expressed in number of yarns per inch. Since the number of threads in the warp is generally greater than the filling, the strength of a cloth is greater in the direction of the warp (or "grain" of the cloth). Cloth is made from a wide variety of animal, vegetable, and synthetic fibers. Animal fibers include those obtained from animal hair—e.g., wool—and those obtained from insects, such as silk. Vegetable fibers include vegetable hairs, e.g., cotton; bast fibers from the stems of plants, such as flax, hemp, jute, etc.; and fiber bundles, such as sisal, esparto, straw, etc. The fibers most often used in bookbinding are cotton, flax, and silk. See also: BOOK CLOTH. (52, 102, 341)
cloth boards
1. An old term for PRESSING BOARDS used to create the joints of a case binding during the casing-in operation. 2. An obsolete term for the boards of a book. 3. A term sometimes used to indicate a book bound in cloth. 4. See: CLOTH-LINED BOARD. (256)
clothbound
A book bound in full cloth with stiff boards.
cloth-cased book
A case binding having cloth as the covering material. The term is usually restricted to an edition or library binding, particularly the former. (154, 339)
cloth-centered
A term applied to a type of duplex paper or board, one having a cloth core (or center), usually canvas, linen, muslin, etc., with paper laminates on both sides. It is used where great strength, resistance to wear, and folding endurances are required, as with large maps. (58, 156)
cloth graining
The all-over patterns imparted to cloth to achieve a certain effect. Cloth is grained or embossed, as it is also called, by means of heated flat embossing plates, when done by the piece, or by heated engraved rollers when done by the roll. Grain patterns include rib, wave, ripple, dotted line, diaper, patterned sand, morocco, sand, pebble, crackle, frond, and numerous others. (69, 341)
cloth hinges
1. Cloth joints extending from the spine of the text block to the insides of the boards of the book, or between split boards. Such hinges are simply an extension of the spine lining fabric. 2. Any cloth or muslin reinforcement of the first and last sections which joins the endpapers to those sections. 3. The board-stiffened, cloth covered "lips" fastened into loose-leaf covers for use in conjunction with metal fasteners or posts. 4. Any cloth jointing used to bind in heavy inserts. (256)
clothings
The strips of leather, cloth or parchment (or vellum) which are glued to the spine of a stationery binding between the webbings, both to strengthen the spine and help maintain its shape. Also called "strappings. " (82)
clothing up
See: CLOTHINGS; FIRST LINING; SECOND LINING; SPINE LINING (1); TRIPLE LINING.
cloth-jointed endpaper
An endpaper that is reinforced at the fold by means of a strip of cloth. The cloth joint is used where reinforcement or extra strength is required and the appearance of the cloth strip is not objectionable. For maximum effectiveness the sewing to the text block should be through the cloth. The sewing may be concealed by inserting the cloth joint into a zig-zag; however, as this type of endpaper is utilitarian and used mainly for large account books, this is seldom done. See also: LIBRARY STYLE ENDPAPER. (343)
cloth-lined board
A board backed with linen or linen canvas. Such boards are used where additional strength is required but additional thickness is not desirable. See also: CLOTH-CENTERED. (58)
cloth printing
Book cloths decorated by letterpress, offset, or gravure printing. In the latter two processes, even full color photographs and artwork can be printed on a suitable cloth. The picture-cover bindings used by library binders are an example of cloth printing. (234)
cloth stiffened cover
A style of binding consisting of a cloth cover secured to the spine of a book and stiffened on the sides with thick paper or board inserted between the cover and the endpapers. See also: PAPER-STIFFENED COVER. (343)
cloth stubs
Linen or muslin strips bound into a book, usually during sewing, as a strengthening medium for heavy inserts.
cloth tooling
The process of tooling in gold on a cloth binding. As with leather, glair is required, and, in addition, greater pressure is required because the surface of cloth is harder, especially the surface of a filled cloth. Pyroxylin impregnated cloth or imitation leather sometimes has to be washed with methylated spirits before being tooled. (54)
cloth weight
The weight of a given cloth, measured in ounces per square yard, or ounces per linear yard, depending on the cloth. Starch filled book cloths range from 1.7 to 7.0 ounces per square yard, vinyl coated fabrics from 14 to 31 ounces per linear yard (with a per linear yard allowance of minus 1 ounce to plus 2 ounces), and pyroxylin-coated cotton fabrics from 5.0 to 28.5 ounces per linear yard. The Library Binding Institute specifications for pyroxylin-impregnated buckram call for a cloth of not less than 7.9 ounces per square yard. (209, 341)
cloudy
cloud effect
See: WILD (1).
club bindery
A fine hand bindery founded in 1895 by Edwin Holden, Robert Hoe, and other wealthy American bibliophiles, most of whom were members of the Grolier Club. The purpose of the Club Bindery was to provide American bibliophiles with bookbindings of a quality equal to those available in Europe, thus avoiding the delays and other inconveniences of having to send books to Europe to have them bound. William Matthews was given the responsibility of organizing the shop, and he proceeded to hire the Clubs' first craftsmen, Frank Mansell, finisher, and R. W. Smith, forwarder. Other craftsmen employed by the bindery included Henri Hardy and Leon and Paul Maillard, French finishers; Adolf Dehertog and Charles Micolci, a coverer and assistant finisher, respectively; Mary Neill, sewer; Anna Berger, mender, repairer, etc.; and others. The Club Bindery exerted a considerable influence on fine binding in America; unfortunately, however, not even the wealthiest of the stockholders had the resources to supply sufficient work to keep the bindery going. Efforts to transfer ownership of the club to the employees failed and the Club Bindery went out of existence in April of 1909. (331)
c m pattern
The code name for a small pebbled pattern in a book cloth.
coal tar dyes
See: ANILINE DYES.
coated
Paper or board which has had its surface modified by the application of clay or other pigment and adhesive materials, or other suitable material, with the intent of improving its finish in terms of printability, color, smoothness, opacity, etc. The term is also applied to lacquered or varnished papers and book cloth, as well as other covering materials.
coated art paper
A coated paper particularly suitable for printing, especially halftones where definition and detail in shading and highlights are an essential consideration. It is usually a paper of good quality, with a high brightness and a glossy, highly uniform printing surface. (17)
coated cover paper
A paper made in heavy weights and used for the covers of pamphlets, catalogs, etc. It is usually coated on both sides and is available in white and colors, with a dull or high finish. Good folding strength is an essential property. (17)
coated one side
See: SINGLE COATED PAPER.
coating
The mineral substances used to cover the surface of a paper or cloth for the purposes of creating a new surface having certain desirable properties. This property in paper is usually that of printability, but may also be for purposes of decoration. In cloth it is usually used to increase strength and water resistance, but its decorative effect may actually sometimes be of greater importance. The coating material fills the interstices of the cloth or the minute "hills and valleys" which are present in the surface of even highly calendered paper. (143, 323)
coating clay
A CLAY used to coat paper. Coating clays are of a smaller particle size and higher brightness than filler clays. It is a refined clay, usually KAOLIN, that meets specifications. Freedom from grit, correct particles, good color and brightness, low viscosity, and purity of mineral type are among the requirements. (17)
"Cobb" paper
A paper named after Thomas Cobb, an English papermaker, who introduced it about 1800. The paper is thin, finely textured, wove, and generally somewhat drab in color, and subject to considerable stretching when wet. During the first half of the 19th century it was used extensively for the covers of "boarded" books, and large quantities were used for the endpapers of economy leather bindings in the last half of the 19th century. (94, 236, 371)
Cobden-Sanderson, Thomas J.
1840-1922
See illustration An 1892 binding by Thomas J. Cobden-Sanderson on an 1841 copy of J.R. Lowell's A Year's Life. Reproduced from Bookbindings by T.J. Cobden-Sanderson, printed by the Spiral Press, 1969, for the Pierpont Morgan Library. (18.3 cm. by 11.5 cm. by 1.5. cm.) An English lawyer who left the legal profession to take up bookbinding, working for six months under Roger de Coverley before opening his own shop. Cobden-Sanderson produced some 100 bindings, and his work was generally considered to be superior to that of his contemporaries. His forwarding was excellent, and his finishing was skillfully designed and executed, and noted as much for its restraint as for its elaboration. He produced these bindings with the use of only a relatively few simple tools worked in intricate combinations. He designed his own tools, and, with the exception of sewing and edge gilding, did all of his own forwarding. Cobden-Sanderson signed his bindings with the initials C S and the date, usually on the doublure, a practice widely imitated since by craft binders. Cobden-Sanderson's binding had a highly beneficial influence on the binding of his day. To a certain extent, he started bookbinding on a path away from the situation in which the vast majority of bookbinders seem unable or unwilling to consider new approaches, except within the narrow limits of accepted methods. His influence on his contemporaries was considerable, and it is not unreasonable to maintain that his influence is being felt to this day. Cobden-Sanderson gave up his own bindery in 1893 to establish the Doves Bindery, originally for the purpose of binding the publications of William Morris' Kelmscott Press. He did no more binding from this time, but restricted his activities to creating the designs and supervising the work of the bindery. (2, 94, 236, 281, 347)
cochineal
A red dyestuff obtained from the dried bodies of the female of the insect Dactylopius coccus. The deep red color of the dye stems from carminic acid (C22H22O13). Cochineal was used extensively in the 19th century in the production of red marbling colors and scarlet lakes. It is also used in the dyeing of wool and silk. (97, 235)
Cockerell, Douglas Bennett
1870-1945
An English bookbinder, first apprentice to THOMAS J. COBDEN-SANDERSON. Many of Cockerell's bindings are elaborately tooled with symmetrical arrangements of conventionalized flowers and leaves, sometimes within compartments formed by interlaced lines which often flow from the raised bands. This style, which he apparently originated, gives spine and covers unity, and shows that the designs were conceived essentially in terms of a book cover. His interlacing patterns usually have no loose ends, and his plant forms appear to expand. Small spaces are filled in with gold dots, and butting lines are strengthened by a thorn, often with a dot at each side. Cockerell was not only a fine bookbinder but also performed a service in his teaching and writing, pointing out some of the destructive methods then being used by binders, such as excessive paring of leather and thinning of slips, headbanding with inadequate tying down, the use of acids on leather to create decorative effects, etc. He also called for sound principles in construction and the use of chemically and mechanically sound materials. He encouraged the use of native-dyed goatskins for covering, and did much to establish the use of the ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER, which until recently was used extensively by craft binders. He also was aware of the merits of alum-tawed skin, and his use of it in rebinding manuscripts, and particularly his use of tawed goatskin on the Codex Sinaiticus, helped establish the reputation of durability which this type of skin enjoys today. He also promoted the use of rough edge gilding (See: ROUGH GILT). Cockerell's publications included Bookbinding and the care of books, Some notes on bookbinding, and Bookbinding as a school subject. (94, 217, 236, 347)
Cockerell, Sydney
1906-
A British bookbinder and senior partner of Douglas Cockerell & Son, a firm established by his father DOUGLAS COCKERELL. Cockerell has designed and fabricated marbling equipment, and has been largely responsible for the revival of the art of marbling paper. He is also the inventor of the pneumatic ram used in tooling, the ball bearing fillet, and the tract-guided fillet. In addition, he has contributed to the knowledge of book structure, e.g., the idea of using a free guard around the first and last sections of the text block and also the use of free guards around the folds of vellum sections. He assisted with the repair and binding of the Codex Sinaiticus, and has repaired and bound several early manuscripts, including the Codex Bezae. Cockerell is an honorary member of the Society of Scribes and Illuminators, a Fellow of the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, and a Master of the Art Workers Guild. His publications include Marbling paper, the appendix to Bookbinding and the care of books, and The repairing of books. He has also contributed to several handbooks and encyclopedias.
cockle
cockled
1. A wrinkled or puckered condition in a sheet of paper or board (or vellum) caused, in the case of paper or board, by nonuniform drying and shrinkage, or from heat and humidity, and, in the case of vellum, by humidity. 2. A condition of the paper in books caused by excessive humidity and wetting. Cockling in books is magnified significantly if the grain direction of the paper is not parallel to the binding edge. 3. A term also applied to book covers (boards) rising, pulling, waving or curling, and caused by incorrect grain direction of the covering cloth, board paper, or the board itself, or by the use of the wrong type of adhesive or too much adhesive. 4. A warty growth in sheepskin. (98, 139, 156, 335)
coconut oil
A nearly colorless, fatty oil extracted from coconuts of the palm (Cocus nucifera), or from copra, and used to make gold leaf adhere to the surface of the covering material before impressing the heated tool or die.
codex
caudex codices
An ancient book composed of leaves of writing material fastened together so as to open like a modern book, as distinct from a SCROLL (1) or VOLUMEN, which it superseded. It was introduced originally in the 1st century A.D. The English word derives from the Latin caudex or codex, meaning a tree trunk or stem stripped of bark. Originally, the name was applied to two or more tablets of wood, metal, or ivory, hinged together with rings, the inner sides of which were covered with wax which could be inscribed with a stylus. Later on the term was applied to books of this format made of papyrus. vellum, or parchment. Although papyrus usually appeared in the form of a scroll, and parchment and vellum in the form of the codex, there was a brief intermediate stage, the papyrus codex. This came at a time when parchment was not yet fully accepted, partly because it was thought to be a somewhat vulgar material, and partly because, when the codex was new, it was not realized that papyrus was not really suitable to that format. Scribes and bookbinders have long attempted to match the sides of materials forming the leaves of books. The early scribes were concerned with the arrangement of the sides of papyrus, which were different because of the placement of the strips, and therefore the orientation of the fibers, during manufacture. When the number of sheets of papyrus were placed one upon another with each one the same way up, and were then folded down the middle to make a section, the first half of the section had the horizontal lines uppermost, while the second half had the vertical lines uppermost. This method was sometimes adopted, whereas in other cases the sheets were alternated so that horizontal faced horizontal, and vertical faced vertical. In the case of vellum, the practice is to arrange the leaves so that flesh-side faces flesh-side and grain-side faces grain-side, in much the same manner as such papers as azure are faced light side to light side and dark side to dark side. Even modern day book papers have sides, a felt side on the machine-made papers and a wire side on hand-made papers. (94, 123, 192, 236, 365)
coffee
The common beverage obtained from the plant, genus Coffea, and used by some restorers to tint the leaves of books that have been washed and/or bleached, so as to tone them to the shade of those leaves that were not treated. (335)
cohesion
The union of the particles of one substance by means of primary and secondary valence forces. As applied to an adhesive, cohesion exists when the particles of an adhesive (or the adherend) are held together. Cf: ADHESION. (309)
coil binding
coiled binding
See: SPIRAL BINDING.
cold flow
See: CREEP.
cold glue
Synthetic adhesives that do not require heating and which effect adhesion simply by drying. Cold glues are being used more and more in bookbinding, particularly in library and hand binding. See also: RESINOUS ADHESIVES; FISH GLUE.
cold gold
See: GOLDMARK.
cold pressing
A bonding operation in which the parts to be joined are subjected to pressure without the application of heat. In hand binding, virtually all pressing comes under this definition, whereas in edition and library binding, some pressing operations require the application of heat. (309)
cold-setting adhesive
An adhesive that sets at a temperature below 20° C. (68° F.). Most of the adhesives used in bookbinding fall into this category.
collagen
The principal constituent of the fiber-network layer of hides and skins used in producing leather. Collagen is organized in long, wavy bundles which vary in diameter from abut one to twenty microns. These bundles branch in a complex and random manner to form a three dimensional network upon which many of the qualities of leather depend, and it is this complex network of fibers which provides leather with its unique character. Collagen is a protein of the scleroprotein class, which is the most important constituent of the connective tissue of an animal. The molecules (14 X 2900 Å) appear to comprise a triple helix of linear polypeptide strands, composed of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline. When collagen is boiled in water, the strands separate and undergo partial hydrolysis, yielding gelatin. (291, 363)
collate
To put the leaves, issues, or sections of a serial publication or book in the correct order; to make certain that no maps, charts, illustrations, etc., are missing; to determine if margins are adequate for the desired type of sewing, as well as for trimming; to note tears, or other damage to leaves in need of repair; and to determine the general condition of the publication, including the paper on which it is printed, the grain direction of the paper, the presence of bled illustrations, and the need for pocket material, stubs, guards, etc., for the purpose of selecting the most appropriate binding style.
collating mark
See: BLACK STEP.
collation
1. That part of the description of a book, other than its contents, as a physical object. Collation gives the number of volumes, pages, columns, leaves, illustrations, photographs, a maps, etc., as well as the size and format. 2. The process of comparing minutely, page by page, line by line, or even symbol by symbol, either visually, or by means of electro, electromechanical, or chemical means, in order to determine whether or not two books are (more or less) identical copies or variants. (69, 156)
collet hammer
See: BACKING HAMMER.
color
1. The multiple phenomena of light, manifest in the appearance of objects and light sources that are specified and described totally in terms of a viewer's perceptions pertaining to hue, lightness, and saturation for physical objects, and hue, brightness, and saturation for sources of light. The normal human eye is sensitive to a range of wavelengths from approximately 3.8/10,000 to 7.6/10,000 mm., with the longest wavelength being perceived as red, followed in descending order by orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These are called Newton's spectral colors, i.e., they are seen when a beam of sunlight is split into its component parts, as it passes through a prism. Notwithstanding this separation, however, a precise limit for any single color cannot be made because the spectrum undergoes a continuous transition throughout the series. If the human eye perceives all seven kinds of light in the spectrum, and in the same proportions, the "color" seen is white. The color of a particular object is usually contingent on the white light striking the surface of the object and being completely or at least partially absorbed in the surface of the material, with the remaining light being reflected from it. Consequently, when a person sees the color "red," for example, it means that all of the incoming wavelengths (white light) have been absorbed by the surface of the object viewed except those wavelengths which constitute the color we have designated as red. If the light reflected from the surface of the object is allowed to pass through a further colored layer before reaching the eye, such as, for example, a transparent yellow film, more light will be absorbed, and the result will be a mixed color, i.e., orange. This process is called "subtractive color mixture," or color obtained by successively eliminating light of different wavelengths from white light. Pigments, as well as dyes and inks, are mixed with one another to create new hues according to the subtractive system. In theory, any chromatic hue may be obtained by a mixture of the three primary colors. In practice, however, many hues can only be approximated by mixing primaries. See also: COOL COLORS; FAST COLORS; FUGITIVE COLORS; WARM COLORS. 2. Pigment or aniline colors used on the edges of books or on endpapers for tinting or coloring purposes. 3. The suspension or slurry of the materials for use in the pigment coating of paper. (17, 140, 233, 234, 350)
colored brushed top
The decoration of the head edge of a book by means of coloring and brushing with a stiff brush. (343)
colored burnished top
The decoration of the head edge of a book by means of coloring followed by burnishing. (58)
colored edges
The edge or edges of a book that have been decorated with water colors or dyes applied to the edge or edges and usually burnished. The colors are generally mixed with thin glue and edge gilding size. The most commonly used colors are red, yellow, green, and blue; brown, black and pink have also been employed. If only one edge is colored, it is usually at the head. Coloring the edges of books appears to be virtually as old as the codex itself, the earliest known example being purple edges on a 4th century book. Red, ochre, and yellow were often used in the 15th to 17th centuries, while solid red edges sprinkled with yellow were popular in the first half of the 16th century. Colored edges have been common to the present day in miscellaneous binding and from the late 19th century on edition bindings. Although the coloring of edges appears to be purely for decorative effect, its actual function has always been to protect the edges from dust, dirt, and handling. See also: ANTIQUE EDGES; FORE-EDGE PAINTING; GILT EDGES; MARBLED EDGES; RED UNDER GOLD EDGES; ROUGH GILT; SPRINKLED EDGES. (161, 236, 335, 343) Primary colors are: red, yellow, and blue. Secondary colors, derived from primary colors, are: Primary Colors Secondary Colors red and yellow orange yellow and blue green red and blue purple Tertiary colors, derived by combining primary and secondary colors, are: Primary Colors Secondary Colors Tertiary Colors red and yellow orange citrine yellow and blue green red and yellow orange russet red and blue purple yellow and blue green olive red and blue purple
colored endpapers
Generally, tinted endpapers made from handmade paper. Colored or tinted endpapers appear to have been first used sometime near the end of the 16th century. Some of the earliest examples were printed with small repeated patterns that sometimes require up to three woodblocks for their execution. Of these papers, probably the greater number are of Dutch or German origin, although many are English. The Italian colored endpapers are generally very well done, often bearing small patterns devised on a geometrical scale. In the execution of these papers, the color was used in a very liquid form, producing a kind of blotted effect. In the 18th century these papers were also used for covering inexpensive trade bindings. (172)
colored inks
Inks of various colors used for both printing and writing. Numerous dyes and pigments have been used in the manufacture of these inks. Those made from pigment and vegetable colors were used for hundreds of years, but are rarely used today. Inks made from minium (red lead), red ochre (rubrica) or vermillion were used by the Romans, while in the middle ages verdigris or metallic inks (powdered gold or silver in a gum) were often used. From about 1600 to the time the first use was made of inks produced from alizarin or aniline dyestuffs (1861), natural indigo, logwood, cochineal, and similar vegetable pigments were commonly used ingredients in colored inks. Inks made from synthetic dyestuffs. while inert in solutions of the dye and water, and therefore not harmful to paper, are not nearly as permanent as iron-gall or carbon inks, although they are more permanent than the early synthetic dyestuffs. (143)
colored paper
Paper colored on one or both sides during manufacture by means of coloring pigments. When its use is to be for cover papers, endpapers, etc., the shade may range from light to very dark; for printing purposes, however, the usual colors are the light shades, since a dark ink is not very legible on too dark a paper. and printing very light inks on dark paper is not generally practical as two impressions are usually required to obtain adequate opacity. Duplex papers are those with different colors on the two sides of the sheet. (, 204)
colored paste-papers
Decorative endpapers produced by mixing color with paste and soap and spreading the mixture over two sheets of paper, which while still wet, are pressed together. When separated, the transfer of color from the sheets produces a mottled effect on each. Colored paste-papers are sometimes used for covering books, although they have little water resistance unless waxed. Green, red, and blue are among the most commonly used colors. See also: COLORED ENDPAPERS; PASTE PAPERS. (172, 371)
colored printings
The name of an inferior quality of paper, containing a considerable percentage of mechanical wood pulp and used for the covers of pamphlets and similar publications. (156)
colored under gilt
The edge or edges of a book gilded over a coloring (usually red) of dye or water color. Pigment colors are generally unsuitable for this decoration. Colored under gilt is used extensively for Bibles and devotional works. (343)
color fastness
That property of a pigment or dye, or the leather, cloth, paper, ink, etc., containing the coloring matter, to retain its original hue, especially without fading, running, or changing when wetted, washed, cleaned; or stored under normal conditions when exposed to light, heat, or other influences. Color fastness in paper is measured with a fadeometer, and in cloth by a launderometer. See also: FAST COLORS; FUGITIVE COLORS. (17, 209)
colorimeter
An instrument for measuring or specifying color by means of comparison with synthesized colors. i.e., by reference either to other colors or to complex stimuli, not in general identical with the actual color stimulus, and giving results not independent of abnormalities in the color vision of the observer. The typical colorimeter has a built-in standard light source, three colored filters, photoelectric cells or phototubes, a standard reflecting surface, and, in modern instruments, photoelectric cells and electronic circuits to replace the human eye as the receptor. The results of a colorimeter examination are expressed as "chromaticity coordinates. " (197, 233)
color lake
See: LAKE.
color reversion
See: YELLOWING.
comb binding
A form of MECHANICAL BINDING consisting of a plastic strip on the spine from which curved prongs extend. They are inserted into holes punched into the leaves to be held. The name derives from the resulting "comb" appearance of the binding. This type of mechanical binding provides a more-or-less solid spine on which the title of the publication may be printed. Its disadvantages, however. are many: leaves may be removed quite easily by unauthorized persons, and groups of leaves often slip from the grasp of the flexible prongs. In addition, leaves tend to tear from the binding because the large, usually rectangular, slots leave relatively little paper along the line of the punched holes. (316)
combed edges
The edges of a book decorated with black, red, blue, and yellow colors, in the ratio of 1:2:3:4 respectively, in a combed, figure-eight effect.
combination oil tannage
A type of tannage, or process of tannage, in which the skin is first tanned with formaldehyde and is subsequently treated by the OIL TANNING process. Some CHAMOIS leathers are tanned by this method. (61)
combination press
A particular type of press, either manufactured commercially or homemade, frequently the latter, that serves more than one purpose, e.g., as a LYING PRESS that can be turned on its side and used as a NIPPING PRESS, or a press that serves as a STANDING PRESS, BACKING PRESS, or as a press for CASING-IN, having brass-edged boards built into both cheeks. (173, 231)
combination style
An old term used in America for a binding in which the forwarding was done as though for a hand-bound book, i.e., boards to be laced-in, followed by covering, but then having the cover (case) made separately. The case was then "hung on" the text block, the cloth joints were glued down and a lining paper was glued to the insides of the cover boards. (256)
combination tanned
A general term sometimes applied to a leather tanned by two or more tanning processes. Combination processes include CHROME TANNING followed by VEGETABLE TANNING, i.e., CHROME RETAN; vegetable tanning followed by chrome tanning, or SEMI-CHROME TANNAGE: tanning with formaldehyde followed by treatment with oil, or COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE. (61)
combined tannin in leather
Tannin that has combined so vigorously with the hide or skin protein that it cannot readily he removed by washing. (363)
combined water-soluble matter (in leather)
See textual note That material present in leather in a state of loose chemical combination with the hide protein and which can be removed from finely ground leather only by prolonged washing. (363)
comb marble
See: NONPAREIL MARBLE.
come away
The ability of a heated finishing tool to separate or "come away" cleanly during blind tooling without sticking to the dampened leather and thus damaging the grain surface. Rubbing the tool over the flesh side of a piece of scrap leather which has been rubbed with a mixture of white wac and lard (1.25 parts wax to 1.0 part lard) facilitates clean removal of a tool. (97)
commercial binding
A term understood to mean the binding of both short and long runs of identical books largely by machinery, i.e., edition binding, but not including blankbook binding, pamphlet binding, or padding, in distinction from the binding of single books of dissimilar nature, such as craft binding and library binding. (81, 115, 320)
common binding
An English term for a quality of binding that includes sewing on tapes by machine, cloth joints, a canvas or sheepskin spine lining, strawboards, and a covering of sheepskin or buckram.
common calf
common sheep
A very simple style of leather binding, often not headbanded or backed, and without pastedowns or lettering on the spine. They were produced for the inexpensive edition or retail trade, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries. The vast majority of the 17th century bindings were in full leather, as were those of the first half of the 18th; thereafter they were also bound in half leather. (237)
common carrier
An individual or firm that undertakes to transport books to or from a bindery or library on a commercial basis, and who is responsible for losses as prescribed by law. The majority of the library binders today either own and operate their own vehicles or arrange for transportation on a NON-COMMINGLED contract basis.
common marble
A type of thrown marble, applied to leather covers, and consisting of black and brown streaks applied by throwing or sprinkling. The black is generally applied first. (97, 152)
common red
A red marbling color prepared from a mixture of Brazil wood, nut galls, and sal amoniac (ammonium chloride) boiled in water. (97)
commons
common color
An obsolete English term for a grade of book cloth intermediate in quality between the cheaper linens and more expensive extra cloths and buckram. Commons were dyed before receiving the final coat of color. The thready appearance noticeable on linen-finished cloth was less apparent on commons because of the dye and additional coating. (256, 276)
compensation guard
A thickness of linen or paper, usually the latter, bound into a volume to compensate for the thickness of folded maps, charts or other bulky material within the text block, or pocket material, so as to incorporate such material without distorting the shape of the book. They are sometimes made by binding in a full section of blank leaves placed ahead of the bulky material, and then cutting out all except a narrow portion after binding. The more common method, however, is to bind in folded strips of guard paper when the book is to be sewn through the folds, or strips of paper when the book is to be oversewn or otherwise sewn through the sides of the leaves. (102)
compensation pad
A pad of waste paper, slightly thicker than the difference in thickness from the spine to fore edge of a sewn book (the difference in thickness being the result of sewing swell). The pad makes the book the same thickness from spine to fore edge and overcomes the problem of distortion when the guillotine clamp is applied during trimming of the head and tail edges of the book. (276)
complementary color
One of a pair of colors usually considered to be in extreme contrast to each other. Red and green, yellow and violet, and blue and orange are pairs of complementary colors. The complementary of a primary color is produced by mixing the other two primary colors, e.g., green (which is a mixture of yellow and blue) is the complementary of red. (233)
composition leaf
See: DUTCH GOLD.
compressibility
The decrease in caliper of a sheet of paper, expressed as a percentage, resulting from an arbitrary specified increase in load. The conditions under which the determinations are made must be fully specified. Compressibility of paper is of considerable importance in both printing and bookbinding. See also: BUNDLING (1). (17)
concealed binding
A term sometimes used to indicate a MECHANICAL BINDING concealed within a wraparound cover. (54)
concealed joint
See: INVISIBLE JOINT.
concertina fold
See notes on the electronic edition A method of folding a sheet of paper, first to the right and then to the left, so that the sheet opens and closes in the manner of a concertina. Also called "accordion fold," or zig-zag fold. See also: ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER. (58, 278)
concertina guard
See illustration A type of GUARD (1) used in conservation binding. It is made of good quality paper (generally Japanese copying paper) and is used so that the adhesive applied to the spine does not come into direct contact with the sections. The depth of each fold does not normally exceed 1/8 to 3/16 inch. The use of the concertina guard makes pulling of the book easier in the event that rebinding is necessary, and also reduces the possibility of damage to the folds of the sections. A forerunner of this technique consisted of loose individual guards around each section of vellum books. This type of guard is used only in the best conservation binding because it is difficult and time consuming (therefore expensive) to sew a book when using the concertina guard.
condensation
1. A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules, e.g., of an adhesive, combine upon the separation of water or some other simple substance. If a polymer is formed, the process is known as polycondensation. See also: POLYMERIZATION. 2. The process of changing from a vapor into a liquid, as when steam condenses into water.
conditioning
A term which has virtually the same meaning as SEASONING, but, unlike that term, is generally considered to refer to the exposure of paper to an accurately controlled and specified environment for the purpose of bringing the moisture content of the paper into equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. Standard atmospheric conditions in North America are considered to be 50% relative humidity and 73° F. In other countries the standard calls for a relative humidity of 65% (+2%) and a temperature of 68° F. +3° F.). Conditioning is of considerable importance for papers which must lie flat in sheet form, or which must give good register when printed. Unequal internal strains are set up when paper is dried on the papermaking machine, because the tension in the direction of the web travel. i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION, produced by drying, is greater in the cross direction. See: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR. Since most papers are dried to a moisture content of about 3% (by weight of the paper), they tend subsequently to absorb moisture until the moisture content amounts to approximately 5 to 9% (depending upon the humidity of the atmosphere in which they are stored). This tendency is increased once the paper is cut, because cut edges are able to absorb atmospheric moisture faster than the surface of the sheet itself, especially when the paper is stacked in piles. When a stack of paper absorbs moisture, the edges, particularly those corresponding to the cross direction, will expand more rapidly than the center, which causes cockling. In like manner, a "spongy" effect may occur, due to absorption of moisture by the top surface of the upper sheets in the pile. This expansion may take place between the printings of a multi-color printing sequence, or when the paper is dampened as in the offset-litho printing process, with the result that the colors used will overlap in some places and leave gaps in others. Moisture absorption, particularly when the grain direction of the paper does not run parallel to the spine of the book, can cause cockling along the binding edge and waviness in the leaves, resulting in a book that will not close properly. The latter problem can sometimes be overcome, at least to a degree, by pressing the book in an atmosphere of low relative humidity, but the problem of cockling along the binding edge can only be overcome by a method of IMPOSITION which results in the grain direction of the paper running parallel to the binding edge. (17, 42, 144, 156, 276)
conditioning time
The time interval between the removal of the adherends from the conditions of heat, pressure, or both, used in accomplishing bonding, and the attainment of approximately maximum bond strength. (309)
conjugate leaves
The leaves of a section which form one continuous piece of paper, i.e., leaves which are said to belong to one another. The form in which the sheet is imposed and folded determines which leaves are conjugate. In a sixteen-page section, for example, the first and sixteenth, second and fifteenth, etc., leaves will be conjugate. (69)
Conradus de Argentina
A 15th century German bookbinder, who produced bindings characterized by compartments adorned with well-designed stamps representing roses, fleur-de-lis, etc. Conrad also produced several of the ERFURT BINDINGS of that time. (94)
conservation
1. The conscious, deliberate and planned supervision, care and preservation of the total resources of a library, archives, or similar institution, from the injurious effect of age, use (or misuse), as well as external or internal influences of all types, but especially light, heat, humidity and atmospheric influences. 2. A field of knowledge concerned with the coordination and planning for the practical application of the techniques of binding, restoration, paper chemistry, and other material technology, as well as other knowledge pertinent to the preservation of archival resources. Cf. RESTORATION.
consistency
1. That property of a liquid adhesive that enables it to resist deformation. The property is not considered to be fundamental to adhesives; it is, however, manifest in the viscosity, plasticity, as well as other properties of the adhesive. See also: VISCOSITY COEFFICIENT. 2. The air-dry (or oven-dry) percentage by weight of fibrous material in a paper stock or suspension. (17, 98, 309)
contact bonding
An adhesive assembly process which utilizes adhesives that are dried to the condition where they display very little adhesive attraction to each other hut still possess considerable cohesive attraction and strength properties. When two surfaces, for example, are coated with an adhesive and allowed to dry to the point where they no longer display TACK. they can he conveniently handled; when the two surfaces are then joined, however. they immediately attract each other and cohere, instantly forming a strong bond. If the two surfaces are allowed to dry for too great a time, however, the ability to cohere is destroyed, unless the adhesive is dampened with a solvent and then allowed to dry once again to the stage of non-tackiness. This type of adhesive is used extensively in attaching plastic laminates to surfaces and is convenient to use in other applications where immediate bonding is important. Such contact adhesives are usually based on synthetic elastomers.
contemporary binding
1. A bookbinding produced immediately following the printing of the book; or, before 1700, a binding in the style of the decade or even the quarter century. 2. A new binding of an old book done in such a manner as to appear contemporaneous, to a greater or lesser degree, with the original binding, or one of the binding styles of the time when the book was published. Contemporary bindings of this type, while not creative or imaginative, are not unethical provided no attempt is made to disguise the fact that they are new bindings of older books. (373)
continuous guard
A type of guard to which the folios of blankbooks are frequently sewn, the purpose being to allow the hook to lie very flat when open. The folds of the guard, which are about 1/2 inch deep, are double the number of the folios of the book. Unlike the CONCERTINA GUARD, the folios (sections) do not fit into the folds of the guard, but rest against the edges of the folds of the guard, with the results that the opposite edges of the guard become the spine of the book, much in the manner of the REVERSED V-GUARD. The continuous guard is usually made of linen.
continuous trimmer
A trimming machine which does not have to be stopped and started for each cut, as is the usual case with the typical guillotine cutter. It has a revolving cutting bed equipped with four faces, each of which has its own clamp. When one clamp is filled with books, it closes and the bed makes a quarter revolution carrying the books under the fore-edge knife. While the fore edges are being trimmed, the operator fills the next clamp, the bed makes another quarter turn, and the heads and tails of the books in clamp one are trimmed at the same time the fore edges of the books in clamp two are being trimmed. Another quarter turn brings the hooks in clamp one over a conveyor where they are released. (339)
conventional foliage
A form of bookbinding ornamentation, usually structured by means of individual tools, which is generally unrealistic but still clearly suggestive of foliage. (156, 250)
convex covers
Book covers that are convex in shape because the book is thicker in the middle than at the spine and fore edge. Very old books sometimes had covers that were made convex intentionally, apparently in the belief that they could hold and support the leaves better by conforming to the shape of the text block. The text block was curved because the early printers produced books that were somewhat swollen in the middle, the swelling being due to the sheets being dampened before printing so as to obtain a better impression. This resulted in the fibers of the paper in the center part of the sheet being stretched and separated by the force of the type. The fibers did not return to their original conformation following printing, resulting in a slight additional thickness of the paper in the print area.
cool colors
Colors which are situated in the green-violet half of the color circle, i.e., colors in which blue is dominant. Bluish grays are referred to as cool colors. See also: WARM COLORS. (233)
copal
A resinous substance obtained from the exudations of living trees in areas of the tropics, or from fossils, rendered soluble in alcohol or other organic solvents, and used in the manufacture of printing inks and certain varnishes. In its dry form, it is also used in the manufacture of gilding powders. (156, 264)
copolymer
A complex polymer, resulting from the polymerizing together of two or more different monomers or monomer combinations. A copolymer is a true compound and often has properties distinct from those expected of a physical mixture of the separately polymerized component monomers. An example of an important copolymer used in archival work is the vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymer.
copperas
See: FERROUS SULFATE.
copper naphthenate
A green cupric salt of naphthenic acid and copper, with the combined fungicidal properties of naphthenic acid and copper. It is practically non-volatile and is used in a 0.1% concentration to control the growth of molds and fungi. There is some risk involved in its use because its presence in paper increases the liability of the paper to damage in a polluted atmosphere, possibly due to the catalytic action of the copper with regard to sulfur dioxide, resulting in the formation of sulfuric acid. (198)
copper number
A number expressing the amount of copper reduced from the cupric to the cuprous state by a given amount of cellulosic material. It is useful as a measure of purity, particularly in relation to the strength and resistance to chemical degradation of paper and board. The copper number gives the degraded celluloses, and particularly those that result from bleaching. Although the copper number test is subject to reservations, it is generally agreed that a lower copper number enhances the chances of longevity of the paper. The test does not, however, apply to lignified fibers, and must be corrected for noncellulosic constituents. (72, 143)
Coptic bindings
Bindings produced by the Copts, or Egyptian Christians. The Coptic style of sewing is not unlike that of present-day machine edition sewing, in that it is also in the form of chain stitch linkings appearing as so many braids across the spine of the book. In addition, the covers of Coptic bindings were frequently sewn or laced to the text block by a number of hinging loops. Some Coptic bindings had wooden boards (from about the 4th century to the Middle Ages), but the majority had boards built up by layers of waste papyrus. They also had lined spines with flanges, as well as headbands. They were covered in leather as early as the 4th century and were tooled in blind, or by blind blocking. although decoration with inked and painted ornaments, as well as cut-out openwork backed with pieces of painted or gilded parchment were also used. Decoration consisting of openwork with parchment backing was executed before the leather (which was already cut to size) was attached. as was blind tooling or stamping when the fragile papyrus boards were employed. The tooling was in all likelihood done with unheated tools on moistened leather. Coptic bindings make up the oldest surviving "family" of leather bookbindings, and represent the ultimate source of all decorated leather bindings. (104, 158, 236, 347)
copy
1. A single example of a written or printed work. 2. One of the theoretically identical specimens of a work which together comprise an edition. impression, or issue. Different copies may also be printed on different qualities of paper. When printed in a different format, they constitute different editions, e.g., a paperback edition, and generally follow the original issue. 3. An imitation or reproduction of an original work. 4. To imitate or reproduce an original work by printing, or some other means. 5. Subject matter, either manuscript or printed, that is to be put into type or plates. 6. The material to be reproduced by photographic or other means, as well as the result of some process of reproduction. (12, 274)
cording
The process of inserting and tying string or cord on hanging cards, calendars, catalogs, and other items, the material being either pre-punched or pierced with an awl. Cording is done either by hand or on semi-automatic or automatic machines. (58, 82)
cord marker
An old term applied to the marks made across the spine of a gathered book to indicate the positions of the cords, tapes or bands on which the book was to be sewn, and, in the case of sewing on recessed cords, where the sawing-in was to be done. (256)
Cordoban leather
Originally, a "leather" that was basically alum-tawed hair sheepskin, usually of a naturally white color but also dyed red. It was first produced in Córdoba, Spain, by a combination of Arab and Spanish craftsmen following the Moorish invasion of the 8th century. Sometime during the 14th or 15th century the method of producing Cordoban changed from tawing to vegetable tannage. Within Spain the name for all these materials, including CORDOVAN LEATHER, was guadameci. The terms "Cordoban." "Cordovan," and "Spanish leather" have been used in England for centuries to denote indiscriminately several kinds of leather, some imported from Spain, others from France and Holland, as well as some actually produced in England and called "cordwain," which is probably a corruption of the French cordouan. (351)
Cordovan leather
A soft. fine-grained, colored leather produced mainly from the SHELL of a horse butt, but now also produced from goat- and pigskin. It is a vegetable tanned and curried leather. The name derives from Córdoba, Spain, where the leather was first produced. Cordovan is well known for its non-porosity, density, and good wearing characteristics. At one time it was used fairly extensively in bookbinding, particularly in Spain. See also: MUDÉJAR STYLE. (291, 363)
cords
The cotton, hemp, linen. or silk cords or bands, of varying thicknesses, which extend across the backs of the gathered sections and are used in sewing books through the folds. They are either sunk into saw cuts in the sections, as in RECESSED-CORD SEWING. or rest against the sections to form the raised cords or bands used in FLEXIBLE SEWING. See also: BANDS (1); TAPES; THONGS (2); WEBBING(S) (1). (198, 236)
cord sewing
See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING.
corduroy
A durable, cut-pile fabric having vertical ribs, made of cotton or plain and twill weaves, and made in various weights and colors. Corduroy was used to some extent in the early part of the 20th century as a covering material for blankbooks and other large volumes. (264)
cordwain
An English term for CORDOBAN LEATHER, or CORDOVAN LEATHER.
corium
See: DERMIS.
cork back
An imitation leather having a reverse surface of ground cork, producing the appearance of the flesh side of a leather.
corner
corners
1. The juncture of the two edges of a book cover at the fore edge and head and tail. Types of corners include the LIBRARY CORNER, ROUND CORNER, and SQUARE CORNER. 2. The cloth, leather, or other material on the corners of half bindings. 3. A CORNERPIECE (2). 4. See: BOOK CORNERS.
cornered
cornering
The corners of boards that have been rounded, or the covering material which has been formed around the rounded corner. Boards are generally round-cornered on a cornering machine, or with a curved chisel. (58, 139, 259)
cornering machine
A foot- or power-operated machine used for cutting the round (or other shape) corners. of paper, cards, book boards, etc. The machine employs a curved chisel for this purpose. (264)
corner knife
A type of knife used for cutting leather at the corners of a book in the process of covering. (115)
corner mitering
See illustration The process or operation of accurately joining the edges of the covering material of a book that has been turned-in at the edges of the board. The purpose is to have a minimum of overlapping of cloth, or a pared overlapping of leather or vellum. Corner mitering has been altered considerably down through the history of bookbinding. One particular method, which was used well into the 16th century, involved cutting the leather so as to leave a tongue, with the cut- ting usually being done after the leather had been turned-in. In other methods, the leather was turned-in and then cut so that the vertical edges of the leather butted, or nearly so. An opposite technique was to cut the leather before turning it in, with the result that it overlapped a great deal more than is usual today, and left a small gap at the corners. This technique appears to have been in general use from the second half of the 16th century to the end of the 18th or early years of the 19th. Toward the end of this period the leather was pared thinner and the gap at the corner was considerably neater. During the last three-quarters of the 19th century the most common method of corner mitering of full leather bindings was to pare them diagonally and on a bevel before turning-in, so that the two edges overlapped to the extent of the bevel, coming together at an angle of 45° from the corner. (236)
cornerpiece
cornerstamp
1. A bookbinding finishing tool, usually ARABESQUE, designed to be used at the corners of a leather binding, usually for the purpose of matching a centerpiece or other form of decoration. 2. Metal corners attached to a binding to protect the corners of the covers from damage. Removable pasteboard cornerpieces are sometimes used to protect the corners of books during shipment. (156, 310)
corner pull test
A test similar to the PAGE PULL TEST, except that the leaf clamping device is limited to gripping only the upper or lower corner of the leaf. This test is designed to determine if a leaf will tear before it can be pulled from the binding, and is used mainly in testing the strength of adhesive bindings.
corners
See: BOOK CORNERS.
corner tool
A bookbinding finishing tool used to make corner designs on a binding. It can also be used to make the center design, four impressions of the same tool resulting in a center pattern. See also: CORNERPIECE (1). (97, 261)
corrected grain
A leather from which the surface of the grain has been partially removed by BUFFING (2) to a depth governed by the condition of the stock, and upon which a new surface has been built by means of various finishes. See also: BUFFED LEATHER. (61)
corrected white
See: DYED WHITE.
correct pattern
The contour of a hide flayed so as to permit the tanner to produce the maximum amount of good leather. It is a standard pattern adopted by packers and tanners. (363)
corrugations
Wrinkles across the middle of sheets of handmade paper, caused by the paper being wetted during printing and not drying evenly thereafter. The sheet is stretched in the printing area by the force of the press, resulting in uneven tension between the printed and unprinted areas. See also: CONVEX COVERS. (154)
Corvinus bindings
Bindings belonging to Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary (1458-1490) and famous as a patron of the arts. The magnificent library which he gathered together at the royal palace of Budapest contained manuscripts celebrated as the most marvelous masterpieces of Italian miniature painting of the Renaissance. They were executed by the greatest Florentine miniaturists of the day. These manuscripts, embellished with gold and colors on the inside, were adorned with equally superb bindings, many of which are in red velvet or morocco leather, decorated with gold tooling, inlays of leather of a different color. enamel, and cameos. Some were strongly reminiscent of Oriental motifs, while others were more Italian in character. Many manuscripts were also bound in brocade with bosses and clasps of silver. In 1526 the king's library, which was estimated at anywhere from 1,500 to 3,000 volumes, was sacked by the Turks. (347)
Cosway bindings
Leather bookbindings produced in the usual manner, except that they have miniature paintings inset into their covers. They are named after Richard Cosway (c 1742-1821), the English miniaturist. Cosway actually had nothing to do with the execution of these bindings, as they were not introduced until early in the 20th century. They were probably the invention of the firm of Henry Sotheran. booksellers, or their manager, J. Harrison Stonehouse. The books were bound by Robert Rivière, in good quality Levant morocco, with morocco joints, watered-silk linings, and the miniatures painted on ivory, glazed, and insetted in the covers. (236)
cottage style
cottage roof
A style of book decoration in which the top and bottom of a center rectangular panel slope away from a broken center, producing a kind of gabled effect. The spaces are filled in, at times, with French sprays and branches in combination with lacework, and sometimes with the same small tools used in the fan ornament. Although this style of decoration may have originated in France, perhaps as early as 1630, it is most characteristic of English binding of the late 17th century (c 1660) to about 1710. The style was still being used on pocket almanacs and devotional hooks as late as, or even later than, 1822. (124, 158, 172, 281)
cotton
A soft, fibrous, usually white organic substance that clothes the seeds of various plants, especially of the genus Gossypium. The cotton fiber resembles a flat, twisted tube. having a thin wall and a wide central canal. known as the lumen. Because of this wide lumen, the cylindrical fiber collapses upon drying to the form of a flat, twisted tube, somewhat in the shape of a corkscrew. The fiber length may be as much as 30 mm. and the width between approximately 0.01 and 0.03 mm., giving a ratio of length to width of more than 1,000 to 1. Cotton consists of more than 90% cellulose, exclusive of COTTON LINTERS. Since it is almost pure cellulose, cotton fibers are readily affected by acids and moderately strong oxidizing agents. Alkali compounds in moderate amounts and at normal temperatures, however, have little effect on them. Cotton is used extensively in the manufacture of sewing thread, spine lining cloth, book cloth (including buckram), as well as higher grade papers and other products used in archival work. (143, 198)
cotton bating
A soft, fluffy cotton fiber, having a sized surface to hold the fibers together, and used as a padding medium for album covers, gold cushions, etc. (256)
cotton content
See: COTTON FIBER CONTENT PAPER.
cotton drill
See: DRILL (1).
cotton fiber content paper
Papers which are made from cellulose fibers derived from COTTON LINTERS, cotton or linen cuttings, and lint cotton. Flax is also sometimes included in this definition. Also called "rag content paper" and "cotton content paper." (17, 93)
cotton linters
The fine, silky fibers which remain adhered to the seeds of the cotton plant after ginning, including parts of the longer textile fibers, or "lint," as well as coarse, short fuzz fibers in most upland species of the plant. When purified, linters are used in the manufacture of paper. They can be used to replace from 5 to 35% of the rag content of fine papers with little or no loss of strength. Linters improve uniformity and the color properties of paper, and also provide a cleaner, bulkier sheet. Although linters do find use in papermaking, their principal use is as a raw material in the manufacture of cellulose derivatives. (17, 42, 72)
cotton parchment
A parchmentlike material produced by soaking cotton fibers in a solution of sulfuric acid and then rolling the fibers into sheets. See also: IMITATION PARCHMENT. (197)
cotton thread
See: SEWING THREAD.
cotton wool
A raw cotton wadding, usually referred to as absorbent cotton, and used as an applicator for stains, 3 dyes, and other bindery operations. (237, 335)
couch
1. The operation of transferring or laying sheets of handmade paper from the mold to the felts for pressing. 2. To press the newly made sheets of paper on the felts. 3. To press a sheet on the wire of a cylinder papermaking machine and transfer it onto the felt for pressing and drying. 4. To press water from a sheet on a couch roll of a FOURDRINIER MACHINE, or extra water by means of a suction couch preparatory to transferring it to a felt. (140, 197)
coucher
1. An obsolete term for a large book meant to rest on a table or stand, especially a cartulary, register, or antiphonary. 2. The workman who lifts the newly formed sheets of handmade paper from the mold in which they are formed, and transfers them to the couch board on which he builds up a POST (1). (140)
couching
1. See: COUCH. 2. A method of embroidering a binding consisting of gold threads laid on the surface of the cloth and held down by threads of bright red silk coming from the back of the material. Ancient methods of couching were numerous, with zig-zags, wave patterns, and all manners of diapers being produced by the position and arrangement of the stitches that controlled the gold thread. (115)
couch roll
A roll or cylinder on a papermaking machine the purpose of which is to press, i.e., de-water, or COUCH (4) the newly formed web of paper from the wire, and to transfer the web to the wet press for further de-watering. Couch rolls are of two basic types: the suction couch roll and the pressure couch roll. The suction couch roll is a heavy metal shell drilled with numerous small holes through which a high vacuum exists for the rapid removal of water from the web as it travels over the roll. The pressure couch roll consists of two rolls which apply pressure to the web to remove water. (17)
counter
1. An automatic device for recording the output or activity of a machine or device. 2. The bed or base of a blocking press. 3. The interior white area of a type letter.
counterbalance
A device on a board cutter, or similar device, consisting of a bar or rod with a weight or weights that are adjustable so that they can increase or decrease the counterbalancing effect on the blade. The rod or bar is an extension of the knife, and, by the action of gravity, works to prevent the knife from dropping and also assists in raising the knife following the cut. Although originally intended to enhance the usability of the blade, the counterbalance today is considered to be more of a safety device than a functional part of the cutting operation. (145)
counterchange
A decorative binding motif consisting of a cover broken into divisions in which there is a reversal of dark and light shading. If the cover is divided in half vertically, the left half of the background may be of a dark shade, and the right a light shade, while the panel in the center, also divided vertically, would have a light left and a dark right side. (94, 183)
countermark
A smaller and subsidiary WATERMARK found in antique papers, usually in the opposite half of the sheet to the watermark. It usually consists of the name or initial of the papermaker, the date, and the place of manufacture, although small devices such as a small post-horn or cabalistic signs have been used. The countermark was introduced in the 17th century. (69, 156)
countersunk
1. A bookbinding having a panel sunk or depressed below the surface of the covering material, and designed to take an inlay, label, or the like. 2. A type of WATERMARK produced by pressing down the woven cover or face of either a mold or dandy roll. Also called "intaglio" (2). (12,156)
cover
1. The outer covering of a book placed on a text block to protect it both in use and storage, and, in many cases, to serve as a medium of decoration. A cover may be limp, e.g., a LIMP BINDING, which has no boards and the covering (usually vellum) is turned-in on itself and covered with the board papers; semi-limp (or semi-flexible), in which the boards are thin and flexible and are covered with leather or cloth and drummed on. See: DRUMMING ON. 2. A SELF-COVER, as of a pamphlet; or a stiff cover, e.g., more or less rigid boards covered with leather, vellum, cloth, paper, or combination thereof. Stiff covers are usually glued down all over, turned in and covered with board papers. In edition and library binding, the term CASE (1) is more appropriate. 3. The outside leaf of a periodical issue. (131, 236, 256)
cover boards
An obsolete term applied to two thicknesses of board glued together to give greater thickness (and strength) to the boards used for large blankbooks. See also: SPLIT BOARDS.
covering
1. The material, such as leather, vellum, cloth, paper, or combinations thereof, which cover the spine and usually the sides of a book. 2. The process of pasting or gluing the cloth, leather, etc., to a book. drawing it over the spine and boards, and turning it over the edges of the boards at the fore edge, head, and tail of the book. (161, 172)
covering folder
A FOLDER (1) of bone, ivory, or wood, shaped generally like an ordinary folder, except for a slight arc cut from one edge, leaving a more tapered end with a narrow rounded tip. (115)
cover papers
A class of papers used for the covers of pamphlets (other than self-covers), catalogs, brochures, or any other stitched publication, to provide protection during handling and (sometimes) to enhance appearance. They are made in white and a wide range of colors. The majority have plain edges; however, they are also available with deckle edges. Cover papers generally have good folding characteristics, and have rough finishes or are embossed with fancy designs. They are usually produced from chemical wood pulps, sometimes in mixtures with mechanical wood pulp, and, although many are made from pulps containing varying amounts of cotton fiber pulps, they have but little permanence. Various coated papers, including plain, heavy, plastic-coated, cast-coated, metallic, and cloth-lined papers are also used. Common basis weights of uncoated cover papers are 50, 65, 80, and 2/65 pounds (20 X 26 - 500), while weights of coated papers are 60, 80, and 100 pounds (20 X 26 - 500). Aside from folding endurance, desired characteristics include dimensional stability, uniformity of printing surface, and durability. (17, 86, 139, 234)
covers bound in
1. A term used to indicate that the original covers of a book are used in the rebinding of the book. It may include the entire covers (including the spine), the boards and their covering only, or simply the covering of the boards. Sometimes this is called "rebuilding old corners." 2. The paper covers of a periodical issue, pamphlet, booklet, etc., included in the original binding because of their bibliographical or illustrative content. In this sense, the term applies mainly to library binding. (12, 156, 261)
cover title
1. The title blocked on the original covers of a book or pamphlet, or a publisher's binding, as distinguished from the title blocked on the spine of a book by a bookbinder. Cf: BINDER'S TITLE 2. In terms of collation, a cover title is one printed on the paper cover of a work issued without a title page. The paper is usually, although not necessarily, of a different stock and color than that used for the text. See also: SELF-COVER. (140)
cover turned-in
cloth turned-in
The covering material of a book that is turned over the edges and onto the inside surfaces of the boards, the (uneven) edges of which are covered by the PASTEDOWN. Although the term is generally applied to edition and library bindings, books bound by hand are also usually turned-in. In library binding the customary turn-in is 5/8 inch, while in edition binding it is seldom more than 1/2 inch, and frequently less. (58, 209)
cowhide
In a strict sense. a leather made from the unsplit hide or the grain split of the hide of a cow; however, the term is sometimes used to indicate leather made from the hide of any bovine animal. The term is not apPlied to leather made from the flesh split of a cow or any other bovine animal. Cowhide has a slight grain or corrugation, and is a tough and strong leather. takes gold tooling well. and, when properly Prepared, wears well. In addition. if it is of the best quality (and handled frequently), it is usually very durable. Cowhide is not often used for covering books, except possibly very large volumes, such as blankbooks. Even the usual grain split is far too thick for the usual book, and, if pared to a thickness suitable for such a book, it loses a considerable part of its strength. See also: AMERICAN RUSSIA; IMITATION RUSSIA; RUSSIA LEATHER. (102, 129, 164, 343, 363)
c-pattern
The code name for a pattern in a book cloth formed by covering the surface of the cloth with small raised dots. Also called "crêpe." (256)
cracking
1. A defect in a coated paper caused by the formation of fissures in the coating layer which th_en lifts from the base paper during printing, folding, or some other converting operation. Cracking is a bothersome and frequently encountered defect in art papers. 2. Fissures in the crease of a sheet of Paper when it is folded or scored. (17)
craft bookbinding
A general term used since the 1890s to indicate the binding of individual books for specific customers. Such work included rebinding. the restoration and/or rebinding of rare books, and (sometimes) the restoration of works of art on paper. See also: EXTRA BINDING. (140)
crash
1. A course, open weave, starched cotton material, sometimes napped on one side, and used in edition binding for lining the spines of books. It is not used in library and hand binding because it ais too lightweight and flimsy. See also: SPINE LINING FABRIC. 2. A cloth pattern peculiar to the buckram grades of book cloth. of a coarse, pebbled effect. (131, 173)
crayon-resist papers
Endpapers and other decorative papers produced by rubbing the paper with crayon over some roughened surface, and then covering the rubbings with a water color wash. The wash does not adhere to the areas that are waxed. (183)
crazing
1. Fine cracks in an adhesive which may extend in a network on or under the surface or through a layer. It is caused by excessive shrinkage characteristics of the adhesive film, too rapid drying of the adhesive, or by flexing of a brittle adhesive. 2. The process by which yellow or transparent parchments often become whiter and more opaque when folded, producing irregular and disfiguring effects at the joints of vellum bindings. (291, 309)
cream split
A leather produced from a split sheepskin that is heavily glazed.
creasability
The ability of a sheet of paper or board to be folded without any cracks appearing in the area where the crease occurs. Creasability differs from BRITTLENESS, as the latter property involves a small degree of bending and is generally a manifestation of chemical changes within the paper. (17)
crease
1. The impression made on a cover by the use of a heated finishing tool, of single or double blind lines. In full leather bindings, they are usually placed near the edges of the covers, while on half-or three-quarter bindings they are usually at the intersection of the leather spine and corners and the cloth or paper sides. 2. To make the band impressions distinct on the spine of a book. 3. The wrinkle, fold, or crimp in paper caused by folding. 4. See: SCORE. (42, 204)
creaser
1. See: FOLDER (1). 2. A curved finishing tool having lines cut on its face, and used to impress an ornamental blind line or lines on a leather binding. 3. A machine used in edition and library binding for creasing the endpapers even with the back edge of the text block and sealing them down by means of heat. For this purpose, the cloth joint of the endpaper is coated with a heat-sealing adhesive. 4. A device employed in some folding machines for creasing coated papers. (94, 264, 322)
crease retention
The ability of a paper, e.g., a GUARD, to remain folded after being creased mechanically. The term assumes that no adhesive is used. Crease retention and CREASABILITY are not the same. (17)
creasing strength
That characteristic of a sheet of paper or board which causes it to retain its tensile strength after it is folded or creased. Creasing strength is of particular importance in the papers used for endpapers. (17)
creep
A change in the dimensions of a material which takes place with time when the material is under constant load, following the initial "instantaneous" elastic rapid deformation. Creep at room temperature is sometimes called "cold flow." (42, 309)
crêpe
See: C-PATTERN.
crêpeline
See: SILK GAUZE.
cresting roll
A type of finishing tool, consisting of a ROLL (1) having two undulating and intersecting lines below and a series of tufts above. See also: HERALDIC CRESTING. (250)
crimping
The process of applying a series of fine creases or bender marks to the hinges of leaves of loose-leaf books, the purpose of which is to enable the leaves to be turned over easily and to lie flat. The lines of the creasing prevent undue bulking at the area of crimping. A sufficient series of creases closely spaced imparts a rolling effect ensuring a flexibility that is difficult to obtain by any other means. Cf: SCORE. (264, 316)
crinoline
A stiffened, open weave fabric, generally made of cotton, and sometimes used in edition binding as a substitute for CRASH (1) in lining the spines of books. (81, 196)
crocketed cresting
A binding decoration consisting of rectangular stamps ornamented with crockets, which are small curved designs, or with (roughly) triangular stamps, which, when placed together pointing outwards, present a cresting effect. (250)
crocking
The removal of a dye or pigment from the surface of paper, the coloring or finishing materials from the surface of leather, or the transfer of coloring matter from the surface of one cloth to another by the action of rubbing. (341)
crocodile leather
See: ALLIGATOR LEATHER
cropped
1. A book that has had too much of its margins trimmed, especially at the head edge, although not so much that the leaves are BLED. 2 A book that has had its edges cut beyond the shortest, or PROOF (1) leaf. 3. A photograph of which part of the top, bottom or sides is omitted during reproduction, in order to focus attention on a central theme, to bring it into proper proportions for the space it must occupy, or to bleed it deliberately. (156, 234, 365)
cross direction
The direction of a machine-made paper, which is at right angles to the MACHINE DIRECTION, i.e., the direction across the direction in which the web travels. The cross direction of paper generally has less strength and folding endurance than the machine direction, although, in some papers, after aging, the opposite may be true. The cross direction has greater tearing resistance, and paper also expands more in the cross than in the machine direction when the moisture content of the paper increases. See also: AGAINST THE GRAIN; ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR.
cross laminated
A board or other laminate having one or more layers oriented at right angles to other layers with respect to the grain direction of the layers. Alternating grain directions of the laminate outward from the center layer is generally assumed. The built-up boards used in the binding of very large books are frequently cross laminated to provide additional strength and also to reduce the possibility of warping. See also: PARALLEL LAMINATED. (17)
crown filler
See: CALCIUM SULFATE.
crushed
1. A leather which has been heavily pressed, causing the grain to be flattened, or crushed, thereby leaving a smooth, glazed, yet grained effect. Such leather has an unnatural appearance and is now seldom used in craft bookbinding. 2. A defect in a machine-made paper, having the appearance of a paper with a broken, mottled, or cloudy formation. It may be caused by: 1) running the paper web under the dandy roll while it is too wet; 2) running the web through the presses while too wet; or 3) running the web through the calender or supercalender while still containing too much moisture. Paper crushed at the dandy roll or in the presses results in coarse mottling, while paper crushed in either of the calenders has a finer mottling, often accompanied by blackening. (17, 83, 94)
crushed levant
A term sometimes applied to a large-grained LEVANT leather bookbinding having a more-or-less smooth polished surface. See: CRUSHED MOROCCO. See also: CRUSHED (1). (156, 264)
crushed morocco
A MOROCCO leather that has had its grain surface crushed to the extent that it is smooth. Crushing of this nature is done before the leather is attached to the book. The characteristic high polish is applied subsequent to binding. Although a certain effect is attained by this process, to a great extent it defeats the original purpose of using morocco leather, i.e., its beautiful grain pattern. (12)
crushing machine
An early form of the NIPPING PRESS.
crushing plates
See: POLISHING PLATES.
crusting
The process of storing dry leather for conditioning or aging, during which time it absorbs water from the atmosphere until it reaches equilibrium with the relative humidity of its environment. During this period some of its constituents become more uniformly distributed throughout the thickness of the leather. In addition, greater fixation of the tanning materials may occur. (363)
crust splits
A type of leather which, after tannage, has not been further processed but has simply been dried. The term "crust" is used in this sense mainly in association with a leather such as sheepskin, while the term ROUGH TANNED is similarly employed with reference to cowhide. (61)
crust stock
Tanned skins awaiting final coloring or finishing. "Crust stock" is a relatively common form in which to ship tanned skins from the country of origin to another country for final processing. ( 306)
crusty break
A BREAK (4) of leather characterized by coarse, sharp wrinkles that are generally displeasing to the eye. (363)
crystalline cellulose
A segment of the molecular structure of CELLULOSE, in which all of the included parts of the individual chain molecules are arranged in a regular, three-dimensional spatial arrangement, as in a crystalline lattice, so that a definite x-ray diffraction is produced. (17)
C-stage
The third and final stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins, characterized by the relatively insoluble and infusible state of the resin. Some thermosetting resins in this stage are fully cured. Also called "resite." See also: A-STAGE; B-STAGE. (309)
cuir-bouilli
A method of decorating a book utilizing the capability of a vegetable tanned leather to be molded when wet. After being thoroughly softened in water the leather can be formed or molded into various shapes, which, on drying, retain those shapes with a remarkable degree of permanence. The wet-mold leather can be more permanently set by drying it under moderate heat, the degree of rigidity obtained cuir-ciselé being determined by the drying temperature. A faster method, and one that produces extremely hard and rigid shapes, is to dip the molded leather into boiling water for anywhere from 20 to 120 seconds. This is the process that gave rise to the name "cuir-bouilli." Such a process involves the partial melting of the fixed tannin aggregates in the leather. At a temperature approaching 100C. these aggregates become plastic and can be made to flow and redistribute themselves throughout the fiber network of the leather. On cooling, the fibers become embedded in what can best be called a tough, three-dimensional, polymer network or resin, somewhat similar to the materials made by condensing formaldehyde with substances such as phenol, urea or melamine. The leather actually sets so hard that some books bound in this manner required no boards. The decoration itself was executed by cutting the leather lightly while damp, after which the design was hammered in relief. The shaped leather was then immersed in boiling water, and dried, and the depressions were filled with molten wax so as to preserve the designs. The molding of leather was known in Saxon times in England, and was widely practiced during the middle ages in both England and on the Continent. The motifs used were generally mythological animals and interlaced foliage. In the late 19th century interest in the molding of leather was revived and used extensively for many objects, including bookbindings. (94, 236, 291)
cuir-ciselé
A method of decorating a bookbinding in which the design is cut into dampened leather instead of being tooled or blocked. The design is first outlined with a pointed tool and then dampened. It is then brought into relief by depressing the background, usually by stamping a succession of dots into the leather very close together by means of a pointed tool. Certain parts of the design are sometimes embossed from the flesh side of the leather, and in such cases the decorating must be done before covering. This technique of embellishment, which may well have been the highest manifestation of the medieval bookbinder's art, was widely practiced only during the 15th century and only in certain areas, principally southeastern Germany and in Spain. No English and Flemish and practically no Italian examples are known. The finest cuir-ciselé bindings have been identified as the work of MAIR JAFFÉ. More recent (and excellent) examples were produced in France by MARIUS MICHEL,c 1866. (141, 236, 291, 347)
cumdach
A rectangular box, Usually constructed of bronze, brass, or wood, often plated with ornamentation of silver or gold, and used for the storage of valuable and/or sacred works. (156)
cuprammonium hydroxide
A solution of cupric hydroxide in aqueous ammonium hydroxide (Cu(NH3)4 . (OH)2), which is capable of dissolving cellulose if the concentration of copper and ammonia are within given limits. The VISCOSITY (2) of a cellulosic solution in cuprammonium hydroxide is often used in quality control in the manufacture of paper. (17)
cuprammonium viscosity
The VISCOSITY (2) of a cellulosic solution, or a paper pulp in cuprammonium hydroxide under specified conditions, especially those of temperature, cellulose concentration, and solvent composition. Cuprammonium viscosity is used to determine the average molecular weight of the dissolved cellulose. (17)
cupriethylenediamine hydroxide
A solution of cupric hydroxide in aqueous ethylenediamine (Cu(OH)2 + xNH2CH2CH2NH2 → ([NH2CH2CH2NH2]2Cu(OH)2). The solution will dissolve cellulose when the concentration of copper and ethylenediamine are within certain limits. The VISCOSITY (2) of a cellulosic solution in cupriethylenediamine is used in quality control in the manufacture of paper. (17)
cupriethylenediamine viscosity
The VISCOSITY (2) of a cellulosic solution or a paper pulp in cupriethylenediamine hydroxide under specified conditions, especially those of temperature, cellulose concentration, and solvent composition. It is used to determine the average molecular weight of the dissolved cellulose. (17)
curing
1. The process of changing the physical properties of a resin or adhesive by chemical reaction, which may be in the form of condensation, polymerization, or vulcanization, and which is usually accomplished by the action of heat and catalytic action, alone or in combination, with or without pressure. 2. Methods such as BRINING, DRY-SALTING, PASTE DRYING, and WET-SALTING, used to prevent putrefactive or other damage to hides or skins before tanning. See also: DRYING (1).
curing temperature
The temperature to which an adhesive, or the adhesive and adherends, is subjected to effect curing of the adhesive. The temperature which the adhesive reaches in the curing process—i.e., the adhesive curing temperature—may differ from the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere— i.e., the assembly curing temperature. See also: DRYING TEMPERATURE; SETTING TEMPERATURE. (309)
curing time
The period of time during which a joint is subjected to heat, pressure, or both, in curing the adhesive. Further curing may take place subsequent to this time period. (309)
curl
A defect in paper or board, appearing as a curvature in the sheet, caused by "two-sidedness" of the sheet, which results in unequal shrinkage between the felt and wire sides when the paper or board is subjected to changes in relative humidity. In addition, fiber orientation has an influence on the direction and magnitude of curl. The result of curl is the tendency of the paper or board to form a tube (curl)) at the edges, the axis of which is parallel to the machine direction of the material. (17, 42, 98)
curling
A warping or other distortion of an adhesive joint due to the penetration of moisture or solvents into the adherend surface, causing an unequal contraction and expansion of the adherends. See also: WARPING; WAVY EDGES. (222)
curl marble
A marble pattern consisting of red, blue, green, and yellow (or orange), laid down on the marbling size in that order, or, alternately, brown or red only for one-color curls, and curled by means of a frame which contains as many pegs as the required number of curls, turned two or three times in a circular direction. The curl pattern was in common use from about 1660 to 1870, especially in France, where it was much used for endpapers, but rarely on the edges of books. (217, 369)
curried leather
A leather which has been subjected to the process of CURRYING. CORDOVAN LEATHER is an example of curried leather.
currying
A process used in tanning heavy leathers, in which oils and greases are incorporated into the tanned hide in order to increase tensile strength, pliability, and water repellency. Currying also affects the finish and grain of the leather. The process is usually carried out in a drum (drum stuffing) using mechanical action. The oils used include mixtures of raw cod oil, paraffin, and beef (or mutton) tallow. See also: FATLIQUORING. (291, 363)
cusped edge stamp
A finishing tool used to produce an indented outline having the appearance of an oak leaf. The leaf effect is generally reinforced by impressing curved lines from the center outwards. Also called "headed outline tool." (141)
custom-bound
An obsolete term for a book which is bound according to specific instructions, rather than in accordance with general specifications. It was a term used principally in the library binding. See also: CRAFT BOOKBINDING; EXTRA BINDING. (12)
customer work
An obsolete term for work produced by the bookbinder for individuals, in distinction from work done for libraries. The term referred principally to library binding. See also: CRAFT BOOKBINDING; EXTRA BINDING. (241)
cut
cutting
1. To trim the edges of books. See: BLED; CROPPED; CUT AT THE HEAD; CUT DOWN (1); CUT FLUSH; CUT SOLID (1); OPENED; OUT OF BOARDS; PROOF (1); TRIMMING (1). 2. A term sometimes applied to a book which has had its edges cut. 3. To cut the cloth, leather, vellum, or paper covering for a book. 4. Cutting so as to enable other operations to be carried out, e.g., a sheet imposed work and turn has to be cut in half before it can be folded. See: IMPOSITION. 5. The incision made in opening bolts of sections to facilitate tipping-in inserts. 6. The cut made in separating lifts (piles) of sheets for binding. (82, 154, 196, 256)
cut at the head
A book which has had its head edge trimmed, the usual interpretation being that the fore edge and tail have not been trimmed. (335)
cut away
Any part of a section that is removed and not replaced by a CANCEL. See also: CANCELLANDUM. (343)
cutch
1. A packet of leaves in which thinly rolled and cut gold is first beaten in the manufacture of gold leaf. After the gold is rolled to a thickness of 0.001 inch and 1 1/4 inches wide, it is then cut into 1 1/4 inch squares. Two hundred ninety of these sheets are interleaved with 4 1/2 inch squares of vellum or paper, forming the "cutch," which is secured with heavy bands of parchment. The name derives from the Latin calcare, to tread. See also: GOLD LEAF; MOLD (2); SHODER. 2. A vegetable tannin obtained from the heartwood of Acacia catechu, a tree distributed widely throughout the Indian Subcontinent and adjoining areas. Cutch consists principally of catechutannic acid (25-35%), catechin (2-10%), quercetin, and catechu red. When used alone, it produces a harsh leather, which often has an undesirable yellow color. Although it has been used as a tanning material to some extent, particularly in England and Italy, the term "cutch" is better known as a tannin prepared from the bark of MANGROVE trees. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (29, 175)
cut corner pamphlet file
A free-standing type of box, the upper rear corners of the sides of which arc cut away to half its height, leaving the upper half of the back and the top open. It is generally used to house pamphlets and other such materials in the book stack. See also: PRINCETON FILE. (156)
cut down
]. A term applied to a book trimmed to a size less than given in specifications. See also: CROPPED (1, 2). 2. The slipping or dipping of the plow knife when cutting the edges of a book, resulting in an irregular edge. 3. The bands, cords, or tapes on which a book is sewn "cut down" to the correct length for lacing-in or insertion between split boards. (256, 261)
cut flush
cut flush binding
A book that has no SQUARES, meaning that the leaves and covers are cut even, or "flush." In most cut flush work, trimming is done after the covers (which are usually, but by no means always, paper, limp, or the self-covers of a pamphlet) have been attached. The trimming is generally done in a guillotine cutter. As a (very) general rule, no book with any degree of pretension is cut flush. (335, 339, 343)
cut flush, turned in
A book having the covering material on the spine cut flush at the head and tail edges but the cloth or paper covering on the sides turned over the edges of the boards. This technique necessitates the book being trimmed before covering. (343)
cut in boards
See: IN BOARDS.
cut-in index
See: THUMB INDEX.
cut on the quarter
A technique of cutting the wooden boards used in bookbinding. They are cut on the line of the medullary rays, thus reducing the danger of warping. (236)
cut open
A finishing tool having the design on its face defined by lines. (115)
cut out
A term sometimes used in edition and library binding meaning: 1) to cut the bolts of sections and remove blank leaves; 2) to die cut folded maps and inserts to allow for folding free of the binding edge; 3) to die cut board patterns to be used in protecting embossed covers when pressing; 4) to die cut panels to size for inserting; 5) to trim the turn-ins of covers; and 6) to cut out compensation material leaving stubs (compensation guards). (256)
cut out of boards
See: OUT OF BOARDS.
cut-out shapes
cut outs
1. Decorative patterns, generally of a geometric shape, made of cloth, leather, paper, etc., and pasted to the covers of a book. See also: INLAY (4); ONLAY. 2. Special shapes of irregular pieces of paper or board cut out from printed matter by means of steel dies. (139, 183)
cuts for index
Thumb cut apertures made by hand or by a thumb cutter on the fore edge of a book. See: THUMB INDEX. (256)
cut size
A sheet of paper cut in the guillotine or rotary trimmer to dimensions of ]6 by 21 inches or less. Size 8 1/2 by 11 inches is the most common "cut size." (17)
cut solid
1. The edges of a book which have been cut smooth and even, particularly at the head and fore edge. Library and edition bindings are almost always cut solid, usually by means of a guillotine cutter or three-knife trimmer. When edition bindings do have rough (deckle) edges, it is usually an affectation. Books bound by hand also generally have edges cut solid, but this was by no means true in the past. Edges cut solid make it easier to turn the leaves and also reduce the incursion of dust. 2. The faces of finishing tools that are solid metal, sometimes with line veinings, in distinction from tools CUT OPEN. (343)
cut stock
Materials, such as board, cloth, inlays, etc., which have been pre-cut to the proper size for a run of books. The term applies specifically to edition bindings. (269)
cutter-out
An obsolete term for the bindery worker who cut the leather covers for books. The job called for an experienced workman, one with a good knowledge of leather, and the ability to detect flaws and shades of color in the skins. (372)
cutter-perforating machine
A multi-purpose machine that can be used for slitting, both large- and pin-hole perforating, punching, tab cutting, index cutting, cutting and creasing, label punching, round corner and thumb-hole cutting, trimming, strip cutting, scoring, slitting, embossing, nipping, and blocking, by means of standard attachments and interchangeable tools. Such machines are generally hydraulically powered. (343)
cut through index
An INDEX used in stationery binding, e.g., a blankbook, that has all of the leaves of the book allotted to the letters of the alphabet in proportion to the frequency of their use. (276)
cutting board
1. A wedge-shaped board of beech or other hard, fine-grained wood, similar to a backing board but with a square top edge. Cutting boards are available in various lengths, the most common being 8, 12, and 15 inches. The top edge is generally about 5/8 inch thick and the bottom edge about 1/4 inch. They are used in the LYING PRESS when trimming edges with the PLOW, and also for edge gilding. 2. A specially constructed block about 3 feet square, composed of small blocks of hard wood set on end and glued together. The top is treated with oil to help keep the surface smooth. It is used as a block for cutting leather. (161, 183)
cutting machine
See: GUILLOTINE; THREE-KNIFE TRIMMER.
cutting plates
Millboard, zinc, or glass surfaces on which endpapers, guards, and similar materials are cut. Millboards are superior for such cutting as they do not dull the edge of the knife as quickly; however, they must be replaced more often. (133)
cutting stick
A length of wood, plastic, or soft metal, inserted in the table of a GUILLOTINE, against which the knife edge strikes. It is usually square, but in some machines it is round and can be rotated by hand or power so as to present a fresh surface after a certain number of cuts. A worn stick will cause the knife to chew the paper rather than cut it cleanly. (145, 338)
cuttlebone
cuttlefish bone
A piece of shell or bone from a cuttlefish, used to smooth and polish the mended edges of a torn leaf by removing the excess fibers of the paper used for the repair. (83)
cut to register
A watermarked paper cut in such a manner that the WATERMARK appears in the same position in each sheet. (17)
cylinder machine
A papermaking machine which utilizes a wire curved around one or more cylinders or molds that are partially immersed and rotated in vats containing a dilute stock suspension. The pulp fibers cling to the wire and are formed into sheets on the cylinders as the water drains through and passes out at the ends of the cylinders. The wet sheet is couched off the cylinder onto a felt held against the cylinder by a couch roll. Cylinder machines consist of one of more cylinders, each of which forms a sheet composed of the same or different stocks. The multi-cylinder machine forms webs which are successively couched one upon the other before they enter the press section. This allows for considerable variation in thickness and weight of the finished sheet, as well as for the formation of bristols. The press section and the dry end of the cylinder machine are essentially the same as those of the FOURDRINIER MACHINE. The cylinder machine was invented in 1805 by the Englishman Joseph Bramah, and was improved considerably in 1808 by John Dickinson. In England it is called a "board machine," or "vat machine." (17, 60, 180, 320)
D
The Roman equivalent of 500, although the symbol probably was not used by the Romans themselves. The Roman symbol for 1,000 was Cl, and early printers designated 500 as I , which later became D. See also: ROMAN NUMERALS.
damask
1. A decorative design of variegated patterns or crocheted compartments on a book cover. 2. A firm, lustrous fabric made with flat, conventional patterns in satin weave on a plain-woven ground on one side and a plain-woven pattern on a satin ground on the reverse side. It is usually made of cotton, silk, rayon, or combinations thereof. It has been used as a book cloth.
dammar (gum)
Any of several semifossil or recent resins, principally of East Indian origin, but especially a soft, clear to yellow recent resin obtained mainly in Malaysia and Indonesia from trees of the family Dipterocarpacae (especially of the genera Shorea, Balanocarpus and Hopea) and used in the manufacture of PRINTING INKS.
damping stretch
The alteration in the dimensions of a sheet of paper when it becomes wet. Since paper fibers increase more in diameter than in length when moistened, the dimensions of the sheet will increase more in the cross direction than in the machine direction. This is one reason why it is essential that the "grain" or machine direction of book papers be parallel to the binding edge of the book. Handmade papers, when moistened, generally expand more or less equally in all directions, as these papers have no definite grain direction. (17)
d & f
In RULING, the abbreviation for downs and feints. See also: f.
dandy roll
A light skeleton roll or cylinder, covered with wire gauze, which exerts light pressure on the wet web of paper at a point near the first suction box. Its purpose is to mark the sheet (web) with a design carried on the surface of the roll, either to produce a wove or laid effect in the web, or, when letters, figures, or other devices are worked in wires on the surface of the roll, a WATERMARK. In the latter case, the roll is known as a watermarking dandy. Originally, the dandy roll was driven by the Fourdrinier wire, but with the development of higher speed papermaking machines, it became the practice to drive the dandy roll separately in order to eliminate drag which would result in distortion of the watermark. Plain dandy rolls are now used extensively to level the surface of the web and improve or assist in sheet formation. See also: LAID MOLD. (17, 98, 189, 365)
dates, translation of
The conversion of dates, usually from the Roman into Arabic. Other than Arabic, the most common imprint date (or date of publication) to be found in books, at least those publication of the Western world, are the Roman numeral dates. They are translated: Roman Arabic I, i or j 1 II or ii 2 III or iii 3 IV or iv 4 V or v 5 VI or vi 6 VII or vii 7 VIII or viii 8 IX or ix 9 X or x 10 XI or xi 11 XII or xii etc. 12 XX or xx 20 XXX or xxx 30 XL or xl also XXXX 40 L or l 50 LX or lx 60 LXX or lxx 70 LXXX or lxxx, also XXC 80 XC or xc also LXXXX 90 C or c 100 CL or cl 150 CC or cc 200 CCC or ccc 300 CD or cd, also CCCC 400 D or d, also I&revc; 500 DC or dc, also IC 600 CM or cm 900 M or m also CI&revc; 1,000 Hebrew dates found in imprints may be converted to the Christian date by consulting the Jewish encyclopedia under Calendar, Table 1. Islamic dates may be converted by consulting the tables found in John J. Bond's Handy Book of rules and tables for verifying dates with the Christian era, 4th ed. London, 1889, pp. 228-250. The French Revolution calendar is given below: 1 Sept. 22 1792 -1 2 Sept. 22 1793 -2 3 Sept. 22 1794 -3 4 Sept. 23 1795 -4 5 Sept. 22 1796 -5 6 Sept. 22 1797 -6 7 Sept. 22 1798 -7 8 Sept. 23 1799 -8 9 Sept. 23 1800 -9 10 Sept. 23 1801 -10 11 Sept. 23 1802 -11 12 Sept. 24 1803 -12 13 Sept. 23 1804 -13 14 Sept. 23 1805 -14 Dec. 31 1805 end Months (12 of 30 days each, with five additional days) Vendémaiaire (vintage) Brumaire (fog) Frimaire (sleet) Nivôse (snow) Pluvôise (rain) Venlôse (wind) Germinal (seed) Floréal (blossom) Prairial (pasture) Thermidor or Fervidor (heat) Fructidor (fruit)
daylight
The maximum distance between the platen and the bed of a press when it is opened fully. Daylight is also defined as, or is an indication of, the maximum number of books, or books and pressing boards, that can be placed in the press at any one time.
deacidification
A term generally considered to mean the removal of acid from, or the reduction of the acidity in, a material, such as paper. The usual process of deacidification is to treat the paper with a mild alkali which initially neutralizes any acid present and is then converted into a compound that remains in the fibers of the paper to act as a buffer to neutralize any further acidity that may develop (usually as a result of exposure of the paper to atmospheric SULFUR DIOXIDE). High concentrations of strong alkalies are to be avoided because if the pH of the paper is allowed to rise to a very high level, i.e., 10.0 or above, and to remain there for any length of time, there is risk of oxidation of the cellulose under such alkaline conditions. In the usual case, however, even if the pH, immediately subsequent to acidification, is as high as 10.0, reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide usually reduces it below that point. The weakness of most deacidification methods is that slightly alkaline papers are immune to acid attack only for as long as the free alkali remains, and when this is neutralized the paper is again vulnerable. In order to prevent this, the amount of residual alkali remaining in the paper following treatment should be equivalent to at least 3% calcium carbonate by weight of the paper. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE; DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION; NON-AQUEOUS DEACIDIFICATION; VAPOR-PHASE DEACIDIFICATION. (31, 33, 39, 198, 265)
dead spots
The low-finished areas in an otherwise highly finished paper.
dead white
A neutral white, such as that of a paper having no perceptible tint.
deakins
Very small calfskins.
deckle
1. The removable, rectangular, wooden frame forming the raised edge of the wire cloth of the mold used in making paper by hand; it confines the paper stock suspension on the wire cloth. 2. On the Fourdrinier papermaking machine, the arrangements along the side of the wire on which the papermaking stock flows, which prevent the stock from flowing over the edge of the wire. This type of deckle may be moving or stationary. (17)
deckle edge
The feather edge or edges of a sheet of paper formed where the stock flows against the deckle, or, in handmade papers, by the stock flowing between the frame and the deckle of the mold. A simulated deckle edge may also be formed by means of a jet of water or air. Handmade paper usually has four deckle edges and machinemade paper, two; however, a machinemade paper can be manufactured with four simulated deckle edges. An "imitation" deckle edge is one produced on a dry sheet of paper by such means as tearing, cutting with a special type of knife that gives a deckle edge effect, sand blasting, sawing, etc. Early printers looked upon the deckle edge as a defect, and almost invariably trimmed most of it off before binding; however, collectors wanted to see traces of the "deckle" as proof that the book had not been trimmed excessively, or CROPPED (1, 2), as deep trimming was a notorious practice particularly in the 17th century (and even to this day). In the latter part of the 19th century, it became the fashion to admire the deckle edge for its own sake, and to leave books printed on handmade paper untrimmed. This left the book with ragged edges that collected dust, were unsightly (to some), and difficult to turn. In modern books, deckle edges are largely an affectation, and entirely so if the book is printed on machine-made paper. (17, 82, 94, 102)
decorated covers
1. See: FINISHING (1). 2. In library binding, an illustration, design, or special lettering on the upper cover of a book. A decorated cover would also include books, such as paperbacks with illustrated covers when the original cover is attached to the cloth cover, with or without coating. 3. In edition binding, a design, illustration, or special lettering blocked or printed by offset on the book cloth. (131, 183)
decorated papers
Papers used for covers, endpapers, linings, portfolios, etc., and degreasing decorated in some manner. See: BRAYER PRINTS; CARDBOARD PRINTS; CRAYON-RESIST PAPERS; CUT-OUT SHAPES; FOLD AND DYE PAPERS; INK AND FOLD PAPERS; PARAFFIN PRINTS; PASTE PAPERS; PATTERNED PAPERS; PRINTED PAPERS; STENCIL PRINTS; STRING PRINTS.
decorative roll
Any patterned FILLET (1) that deviates from a plain straight line.
deerskin
A leather with a loose, open structure, made from the skin of deer, or other animals of the family Cervidae. It was used for bookbinding purposes as long ago as the 8th century. In the Middle Ages it was largely superseded by calfskin, sheepskin, and goatskin. (140, 291)
defective binding
Any imperfections in the paper, sections, plates, printing, cloth, leather, etc., that make up a bookbinding. (256)
defective sheets
Sheets of printed paper discarded in the process of binding because of paper or printing defects and/ or binding spoilage. (256)
defoamers
Agents which inhibit the build up of foam, or which reduce foam or entrapped air by causing the bubbles to burst, thus releasing the air. Most commercial defoamers are mixtures of surface-active agents, hydro-carbons, alcohols, polymers, etc., to increase their effectiveness in multiple applications. Defoamers are used in papermaking operations. Also called "anti-foam agents. " (17)
degrain
1. To remove the grain from a leather, generally by pressing or rolling the hide or skin under pressure. See: CRUSHED (1). 2. SUEDE LEATHER finished on the flesh side, the grain layer having been entirely or partially removed, following tannage, by splitting or abrasion. (61)
degreasing
The removal of excess natural grease from skins, mainly sheepskins, but also other skins which may happen to be particularly greasy. Degreasing may be necessary because excessive amounts of grease in a skin may interfere with uniform penetration of tannins or dyes, cause difficulties in finishing processes, and/or show as dark, greasy patches in the finished leather. A typical method of degreasing is with the use of paraffin. The well-drained, but still damp, pickled skins are drummed vigorously with about half their weight of paraffin oil (or kerosine, water, and salt), which loosens the grease. To aid penetration of the paraffin into the wet skin, a small amount of a wetting agent, e.g., 5% of a non-ionic wetting agent, may be added. The loosening of the grease is hastened by heating the paraffin beforehand. At the conclusion of the paraffin drumming, the now greasy paraffin is drained off. A considerable amount of greasy paraffin may still be held in the skins and can be removed by squeezing processes, such as SETTING OUT, or by centrifuging. However, as these processes are difficult and expensive to carry out, it is more usual to wash the skins in a 5% salt solution. Salt must be used as water alone would result in acid swelling. (306, 363)
degree of tannage
The number of pounds of tannin that are combined with 100 pounds of hide protein. (363)
delamination
1. The splitting apart of one or more of the layers of a laminate due to failure of the adhesive, or cohesive failure of the laminate. 2. The removal of the laminating material from a document. Delamination of cellulose acetate film may be accomplished by soaking the sandwiched document in a solution of acetone, assuming proper tests have indicated that the ink on the document will not be affected by the solvent. Delamination is difficult to accomplish and generally more than one treatment is required to remove all traces of the laminate. See also: LAMINATION; SUNDEX PROCESS. (218, 309)
delignification
The process by which LIGNIN is removed from cellulosic materials by means of chemical treatment. The residue that remains consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and other carbohydrate materials. (17)
deliming
The process of neutralizing the alkali, e.g., calcium hydroxide, used in liming and unhairing hides and skins. Deliming, which usually takes place in conjunction with BATING, is accomplished by running the hides or skins in a drum or paddle to which has been added water and a proprietary compound consisting of a mixture of an ammonium salt (preferably ammonium sulfate) and proteolytic enzymes at a water temperature of 80 to 90° F. For more efficient control, and to produce a particularly fine grain in the leather, the ammonium sulfate (or boric acid), in the amount necessary to neutralize the lime, is added before the addition of the bating enzymes. (291, 363)
delivered flat
Printed sheets delivered to the binder unfolded, as they come from the press. The term relates largely to edition binding, but is also applicable in many cases to pamphlet and stationery binding.
deluxe binding
A somewhat abused term originally indicating a book bound by hand in leather, the implication being that superior materials and methods were used throughout. The term is also used by edition binders (or publishers) to indicate a book covered in a superior grade of cloth (or imitation leather, or a book supplied with a box or case. See also: EXTRA BINDING. (12, 264, 365)
deluxe edition
An edition of a work produced on a grade of paper superior to that of the standard edition, more-or-less expensively bound, sometimes printed with special type, and often limited in number. At times, however, the term is used merely as a selling term with little or no justification. (12, 140)
dendritic growths
Minute to relatively large discolorations in a sheet of paper due to oxidation of minute particles of metal present in the paper. The presence of the metal is generally believed to be due to the use of metal beaters. etc., in the manufacture of the paper. With the passage of time, irregular fern-shaped designs radiate from the particles. See also: FOXING. (140)
denier
A unit of fineness of silk, rayon, or nylon yarn, equal to the fineness of a yarn weighing 1 gram for each 9,000 meters. Denier increases with the square of the fiber diameter. (42)
denim
A firm, durable, twilled fabric, usually cotton, woven with colored warp and white filling threads and sometimes used in bookbinding for covering large books, e.g., blankbooks, where additional strength and durability are required. (183, 196)
density
Tn general, the ratio of the weight of a material to its volume, or the mass of the material per unit volume. Density should not be confused with POROSITY. See also: APPARENT DENSITY.
dentelle
dentelle border
An 18th century style of hook decoration, usually in gold, consisting of a combination of elliptical scrolls of slightly shaded leafy character joined to clusters and horders of great richness, resembling lace, and pointing toward the center of the cover. ANTOINE MICHEL PADELOUP has often been credited with the introduction of the dentelle style, which actually took its inspiration from embroidery and the decorative arts rather than lace. Of the many binders who used this technique, the most notable were the Deromes and PIERRE-PAUL DUBUISSON. (69, 172, 279, 363)
dentelle á l'oiseau
See notes on the electronic edition DENTELLE decoration which includes birds in the design of the borders. The principal bindings featuring this motif were done by Nicolas Derome. See also: DEROME STYLE. (156)
dermis
That part of a hide or skin below the epidermal-dermal junction, consisting of a condensation of fibrous connective tissue which supports blood and lymph vessels, sebaceous and sudoriferous glands, hair follicles and their associated muscles, etc. In the grain layer of the dermis these fibers become very thin and tightly woven, and arc so interlaced that there are no loose ends on the surface beneath the epidermis. Consequently, when the epidermis is carefully removed, a smooth layer is revealed, sometimes known as the hyaline layer, which gives the characteristic grain surface of leather. Toward the center of the dermis (or corium) the fibers are coarser and stronger, and the predominant angle at which they are woven can indicate the properties the resultant leather will display. If the fibers are more upright and tightly woven, a firm, hard leather with little stretch can be expected, while if they are more horizontal and loosely woven, a soft, stretchier leather can be anticipated. The interior of the dermis is generally the strongest part of the skin. (291, 306, 363)
Derome style
A style of book decoration practiced by the Derome family of France in the 18th century. The most famous of the family was Nicolas Denis Derome (active 1761-c 1789)—Derome le juene—who was also known the the "great cropper" because of his tendency to trim excessively. Nicolas Derome also used sawn-in cords in order to obtain the HOLLOW BACK, which prevents the spine of the book from flexing and thus possibly cracking the gold. He also achieved great fame by his use of the DENTELLE border, taking the dentelles of Padeloup as models. His also are made up of dentelle tools in combination, rather than in repetition, and are represented by symmetrical corner tooling of a very richly engraved floriated scroll work. An essential feature in Nicolas Derome's finest dentelles is a small bird with outstretched wings. See also: DENTELLE À L'OISEAU. (154, 342, 363, 373)
designation mark
The letters which correspond to the initial letters of a title of a book, and any volume number, sometimes printed along side the SIGNATURE MARK to assist the binder in gathering. (156)
designer bookbinders
A British society of bookbinders founded in 1951 as "The Hampstead Guild of Scribes and Book binders." In spirit it succeeded the Hampstead bindery, which, about 1900, operated with the "Guild of Women Binders." While originally centered in Hampstead, London, the present society reached the point where no member lived there, and, as the calligraphic elements also declined. the name "Guild of Contemporary Bookbinders" was adopted. Tn 1968 the present name was assumed. One of the goals of the society is "to exert a progressive influence on the design and technique of bookbinding," (2(b) of the Constitution). Full membership is open by election to any amateur or professional bookbinder who has attained the required standard. Candidates submit samples of their work on which a vote is taken by the Executive Committee. Many outstanding bookbinders, including Edgar Mansfield (the first president), Ivor Robinson, and Bernard Middleton, have served as president of the society.
developed dyes
Dyes whose colors are developed after application by treatment with sodium nitrite (NaNO2). Developed yes are used on suede leathers so as to prevent CROCKING.
devil
A stick fitted with short quills set at a downward angle. The devil is the traditional implement used for frothing GLAIR. (261)
dew point
The temperature at which a vapor, especially in the atmosphere, begins to condense. See also: RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
dextrin
An intermediate product formed during the hydrolysis of starch to sugars. There are three classes of dextrin: 1) amylodextrin, which gives a blue color with iodine and is soluble in 25% alcohol; 2) erythrodextrin, which gives a red color with iodine and is soluble in 55% alcohol; and 3) achrodextrin, which gives no color with iodine and is soluble in 70% alcohol. All are soluble in water but are precipitated by strong alcohol. They are used as adhesives in the manufacture of gummed tapes and paper. (17, 198, 235)
dhawa
country sumac Indian sumac
A tree (Anogeissus latifolia) common to many parts of India, the leaves of which yield a tannin used in that country. The tannin content of the leaves varies considerably, ranging from less than 30% to more than 50%, depending on the age of the trees when the leaves are gathered. The proportion of soluble non-tans is 10 to 13%. Dhawa is considered to be well suited for the tanning of light leathers, giving a soft leather of a light color and firm texture. Dhawa is also the source of GHATTI GUM, See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
diacritical marks
Marks over, under, after, or through various letters in the alphabets of several languages, designed to indicate the nature or stress of the sounds they represent. While lowercase letters having accent marks are cast as units, in display printing it is sometimes necessary to cast accent marks separately, i.e., the so-called floating accents. In library binding, diacritical marks are generally added by hand after the case has been blocked. Commonly used marks include: acute ´ cedilla ¸ circumflex ˆ Umlaut (or dieresis) ¨ grave ` tilde ˜
diaper pattern
1. A gold- or blind-tooled decorative pattern, consisting of a motif constantly repeated in geometric form. The pattern may consist of figures such as diamonds, lozenges, or flowers, separated only by background. or by constantly repeating compartments, each filled with designs. 2. A publisher's cloth with a cross-hatched effect of minute lozenges or squares. Diaper cloths were popular in the late 1830s and 1840s, and have remained standard patterns on fabrics in one form or another ever since. 3. The uniformly patterned background for pictorial scenes in illuminated manuscripts. Its extensive use dates from the latter part of the 13th century. (83, 94, 156, 347)
diatomaceous silica
diatomite diatomaceous earth
The siliceous remains of microscopic diatoms, which are aquatic plants. Diatomaceous silica is used as a dulling or flattening agent in coating and as a filler in paper. Also known as "infusorial earth" and "kieselguhr." (17)
diced pattern
diced binding diced leather
1. The decorated cover of a book tooled with cubes or diamonds. RUSSIA LEATHER is often "diced" and diced calf has been used frequently since the first quarter of the 19th century. 2. A pattern ruled or embossed in leather in the form of diamond squares. 3. A pattern in publishers' book cloth, in the form of a bold diamond, popular between 1835 and 1845. (140, 159, 261)
die
An engraved stamp used in embossing a design or letter in leather, or on cloth or paper. See also: HAND LETTERS; STAMP (1) (139)
die cutting
1. The process of cutting special shapes (cutouts) in leather, cloth or paper. The cutouts are used for labels, inlays, onlays, etc. 2. The process of lowering the background leather, leaving the cut out area, or counter, undisturbed and raised above the impression. (189, 316, 320)
Diehl, Edith
1876-1953
One of the foremost American women bookbinders. Diehl studied the craft in France, Belgium, and England—in the last named country under T. J. Cobden-Sanderson at the Doves bindery—and also with Sangorski and Sutcliffe's bindery. She opened her own shop in 1906, in New York City, and achieved her principal fame through her teaching. Diehl was at one time associated with the bindery of William E. Rudge. She is also the author of Bookbinding; its background and technique (1946). (347)
die sunk
A depression produced by the application of a die or block, either heated or cold. See also: BLIND TOOLING; BLOCKING (1).
diethylene glycol
A colorless and almost odorless chemical (C4H10O3), miscible with water, alcohol, and chloroform, but insoluble in benzene and carbon tetrachloride. It is a solvent for cellulose nitrate, but not for the acetate. It is used as a softening agent for textile fibers, as a moistening agent for glues and paper, as a solvent for certain dyes, and as a plasticizer in some leather finishes.
diethyl zinc
An organometallic compound (Zn(C.,H).,), that is readily volatile (B.P. 123° C. at one atmosphere). It has been proposed as a vapor-phase deacidifying agent, and gives promise of being effective; it leaves an alkaline reserve of zinc oxide in the paper, which not only protects against acid but is an effective fungicide as well. Treatment must be carried out in the absence of air or moisture, as diethyl zinc ignites on contact with air and explodes on contact with moisture. This requires that the books be absolutely dry before treatment; therefore they must be treated with the gas in a vacuum chamber and the excess diethyl zinc must be removed or neutralized before the chamber is opened. Treatment with diethyl zinc leaves the paper with a pH of approximately 7.5 and does not appear to have any adverse effect on leather or other book materials.
digester
A vessel in which pulpwood, straw, esparto, rags, or other cellulosic materials are treated with chemicals and heat to produce the pulp used in the manufacture of paper. A digester is usually constructed to withstand elevated pressures and is made of materials designed to resist the chemicals used in pulp preparation. Digesters may be cylindrical, spherical, horizontal, vertical, stationary, rotating or designed to tumble. Most are stationary. A digester may be designed for batch operation, in which it discharges its pu lp at the conclusion of a fixed cycle, or it may be designed for continuous operation, in which case it moves the raw material and chemicals at a fixed rate from the charging end to the discharging end. (17)
diluent
A substance added to another, e.g., an adhesive, to reduce its concentration, or to an ink, to reduce its viscosity, and so on. Water is the principal diluent used in archival work. See also: EXTENDER (1); THINNER. (309)
dimensional changes in leather
The increase or decrease in the thickness and area of a leather due to increasing or decreasing relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. (363)
dimensional stability
That property of a paper, board, etc., which relates to the consistency of its dimensions. The property is associated with changes occurring in a material due to changes in moisture content, the application of load, or simply with the passage of time. Dimensional stability of paper is important in printing, especially in multi-color processes, since papers with poor dimensional stability may give misregister. This is because, when they are run through the press, the dimensions change from one color run to the next. See also: CREEP; HYGROEXPANSIVITY. (17, 139)
dip
A term sometimes applied to a batch of books, which have been trimmed, jogged and clamped, and are then ready to be "dipped" for marbling the edges. (256)
diptych
See illustration An ancient hinged writing tablet consisting of two tablets of wood, ivory or metal, having wax in the hollowed inner surfaces, on which writing could be done with a stylus. The hinges were generally metal rings or thongs threaded through the holes. Near the outer edge on the inside of one tablet as a small trench designed to hold the stylus, which was a small bone or metal instrument pointed at one end for writing and flat at the other end for removing writing in the wax. In the middle of each inner side a small knob protruded to keep the wax surfaces apart. Ordinary diptychs were generally made of beech, fir, or citron wood, but those made for ceremonial use, or for important recipients, were often made of ivory, sometimes beautifully carved, and fitted with gold or jewels. The most lavishly embellished specimens belong to the Byzantine period, 530 to 560. Because they were small enough to hold in one hand, in Latin they were sometimes called "pugillaria." The diptych is interesting because it is both a manuscript and a binding. (12, 109, 373)
direct dyes
A class of ANILINE DYES, 50 called because they have such great affinity for cellulose fibers, i.e., paper and some cloths. While both these and ACID DYES are sodium salts of dye acids, direct dyes do not require the use of a MORDANT. Their shades are duller than those of either acid or BASIC DYES and they tend to have less tinctorial value than the basic dyes; however, they have the very important advantages of being much more lightfast than the basic dyes, and in certain instances, more so than even the acid dyes. (17)
directional ventilating power
The ventilating power of leather, which is greater in one direction than in the other, in that it allows water to migrate more freely from the flesh side to the grain side than vice versa. (363)
direction line
The line of printed characters in a publication when the abbreviated title of the book, i.e., the DESIGNATION MARK, follows the signature mark, or letter, printed at the foot of the first page of each sheet. It is intended to serve as a guide to the binder when gathering. Until the end of the 18th century the direction line, printed below the text of the page, and often between the text and the footnotes, contained the CATCHWORD, signature, press figures, and occasionally the volume number or part number. See also: SIGNATURE AND CATCHWORD LINE. (140, 156)
direction word
See: CATCHWORD.
directory paper
A lightweight printing paper made with a substantial proportion of mechanical wood pulp. The balance of the pulp is usually unbleached sulfite or semi-bleached sulfate pulp, although the paper is also made from deinked paper stock plus chemical wood pulp. Its essential characteristics are uniformity of basis weight. opacity, strength, and a finish suitable for high speed printing. Permanence is not considered to be an essential property. Usual basis weights are 18 to 28 pounds (4 x 36—500). It is used main1y for printing telephone directories, city directories, and the like. (17)
disc refiner
A type of REFINER consisting of one or more matched pairs of discs lined with a pattern of ribs. One disc rotates, while the other is stationary or rotates in the opposite direction. The paper stock flows from the center outward, or vice versa, and is macerated, rubbed, and cut (refined). The degree and extent of the refining depends upon several factors, including the pressure between the discs, the type of ribbing on the faces of the discs, and the consistency of the pulp suspension. (17)
disc ruling machine
See: RULING MACHINES.
disodium pyrophosphate
A chemical (Na2P2O7) used as a mold inhibitor in paper. It is used in an aqueous solution of 1 1/2 ounces of disodium pyrophosphate, 1/6 ounce of potassium ferrocyanide, and 1/2 ounce of soda crystals in 1 gallon of water. The purpose of the soda crystals is to prevent the paper from turning a greenish hue after treatment. The inhibitor solution may be made up with an addition of gelatin or glue, or other sizing material, if the paper to be treated must be also sized. (198)
dividers
1. The draftsman's instrument used in bookbinding for a variety of purposes, including measuring the distance between bands or webbings and cutting stock, patterns, etc. 2. The heavy sheets of cardboard or paper, frequently of cover-paper weight or heavier, used to divide the sections of a book when two or more sections. parts, or issues are bound together. (264, 274)
dividing into sections
A term applied to the process of dividing the leaves of a book to be oversewn into "sections" following the removal of the hack folds. The normal thickness of each section is 0.055 inch; however, books printed on paper that is unusually thick or bulky are sometimes divided into sections 0.065 inch in thickness. (209)
divi-divi
The tannin-rich pods of a large genus of trees and woody climbers (Caesalpinia) native to the tropics and sub-tropics The most important is Caesalpinia coriaria. Divi-divi pods contain a high percentage of tannin (40-4%) which is easily leached out. It is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins and produces a light-colored leather. It is usually used along with other tannins, because when used alone it produces a leather that is soft and spongy in a damp atmosphere and which lacks pliability in dry weather. In addition, the amount of sugary matter present in the pods results in too rapid fermentation of the tan liquor. This may produce reddish stains in the leather, which can, however, be controlled to some extent by the use of appropriate antiseptics. Divi-divi is also used in leather manufacture as a dye. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
divinity bindings
See: ECCLESIASTICAL BINDINGS.
divinity calf
1. A plain, drab, khaki-colored calfskin binding, popular in the mid-19th century for theological and devotional books. The style was particularly popular in the rebinding of books of an earlier time. The bindings were tooled in blind with single lines terminating in OXFORD CORNERS. The style sometimes also featured beveled boards and red edges. Sometimes called "Oxford style." 2. A leather used principally for the inside cover linings of limp leather prayer books and small Bibles. (69, 156. 371)
document parchment
1. A paper made to replace the more expensive genuine PARCHMENT, and used for legislative acts, treaties, and the like. It is produced from selected linen and cotton fibers, and is almost always surface-sized with high quality animal glue or with special tub sizings. Document parchment is produced in basis weights of 48, 56, 72, and 88 pounds (17 X 22 - 1,000). The paper should be manufactured in such a manner as to insure maximum permanency and durability. 2. A vegetable parchment paper used for diplomas and documents. (17)
doeskin
1. A soft, supple leather made from the skin of an adult female deer and used in England as early as the 16th century for covering books. 2. A soft. supple leather, usually white or cream colored but sometimes dyed, having a fine suede finish, produced from lambskin or sheepskin split and and tanned by a combination tannage, e.g., formaldehyde and oil, or formaldehyde and alum. See also: BUCKSKIN. (172, 278)
dog ear
1. An oversize, unfolded corner in a publication caused when a sheet in a pile of paper having a corner turned under is trimmed in the guillotine. After trimming, the corner of the defective sheet extends beyond the trim size of the sheet when the folded corner is then unfolded. The dog ear is often useful in early books in determining the size of the leaf and the sheet because it reveals the size of the untrimmed leaf. 2. The turned-down corner of a leaf. See: DOG EARED.
dog eared
A book or other publication having one or more corners of the leaves turned down, generally by readers.
domestic goat
GOATSKIN, and, in general. virtually any skin imported in the cured state, i.e., dry-salted or wet-salted, and then converted into leather in the importing country. (363)
dominotiers
The name given to the earliest known "marblers" of historical importance—the dominotiers of France. The name derives from the Italian domino, a word which refers to the little cloak or hood, which was part of the working apparel of the early marblers. The dominotiers apparently were highly successful, as they were shortly granted royal permission to form a guild, along with the wood engravers. Those specializing in the making of marbled papers were called marbreurs. Unfortunately, because of its highly perishable nature, very little of this early marbling has come down to us. (217)
dongola
A term sometimes applied to leathers such as goatskin, sheepskin or calfskin tanned and finished to resemble KIDSKIN.
dope
A solution of a cellulose ester, such as cellulose acetate or nitrate, or a cellulose ether, such as ethyl cellulose or benzyl cellulose, in a volatile solvent, such as acetone, amyl acetate, etc., and used as a coating for paper. See also: LACQUER. (17)
dos à dos binding
A form of bookbinding in which two books, usually small and frequently of a complementary nature, e.g., a Psalter and New Testament, are bound back to back so that they open in opposite directions, one of the three boards being the common lower board of both volumes. The spines and fore edges are opposed. Their upper boards are usually either embroidered or covered with gold-tooled leather. However the dos à dos binding is picked up, it opens at the beginning of one of the two books. (69, 156, 347)
dotted line style
See: PINHEAD STYLE; POINTILLÉ (1).
double coated paper
1. A paper or board which has received two coatings on the same side with either the same or different coating materials. A paper or board coated on both sides is not double coated but is coated two sides. 2. A paper or board heavily coated, but not necessarily with two coatings. (17, 52)
double cord sewing
A book sewn on double raised cords, i.e., two cords set adjacent and almost touching, the sewing thread leaving and re-entering the section through one hole. Double cord sewing is substantially stronger than sewing on single cords and the sections are better supported against the pull of the thread where required most. i.e., at the point where the thread leaves and re-enters the section. See also: FLEXIBLE SEWING.
double covers
A term used in pamphlet binding to indicate two covers, the inner one of which is of the same type and color paper as the outer, but of a lighter basis weight.
doubled
An impression in leather, such as in blind tooling, which is said to be doubled when the tool has been twisted in the impression, or when a repeat impression does not fall exactly over the first.
double decomposition
A chemical reaction that takes place between two compounds, in which the first and second parts of one compound unite with the second and first parts, respectively, of the other compound. One of the compounds is usually insoluble. The principle of double decomposition has been used in deacidifying paper, as, for example, when a soluble calcium or magnesium salt is dissolved in water and the paper is immersed in it. After the paper has been dried it is then impregnated with a soluble carbonate, such as that of ammonium or sodium. Sodium carbonate and calcium chloride, for example, react to form insoluble calcium carbonate and soluble sodium chloride: CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3↓ + 2NaCl; or, using calcium chloride and ammonium carbonate: CaCl2 + (NH4)2CO3 → CaCO3↓ + 2NH4Cl. The soluble sodium or ammonium chloride is removed by washing the paper with water, and it is important that the chloride be removed as completely as possible, as its presence in the paper is potentially harmful. The advantage of the double decomposition method is its simplicity, plus the fact that a much greater alkaline reserve can be deposited in the paper than is generally possible with most other methods.
double gold
1. GOLD LEAF that is twice the customary thickness, or approximately 1/100,000 to 1/125,000 inch in thickness. 2. Regular gold leaf that is doubled upon itself before laying down. Double gold leaf, of this form, or as described above, is easier to handle and gives a brighter and more solid appearance. It is used mainly in edge gilding. (130, 335)
double headbands
Headbands for very large volumes worked on two lengths of thong, or other core. This type of HEADBAND usually appears in the form of a thicker band with a thinner band in front or above. (83, 152)
double kettle stitch
A KETTLE STITCH tied twice so as to provide additional strength. (335)
double mounting
The process of attaching one label over a larger one of a different color. It gives the effect of a colored border around the smaller label. (86)
double plate
1. See: DOUBLE SPREAD (1). 2. A single unit of illustration extending across two contiguous pages, often printed on a folio so imposed that it becomes a CENTER SPREAD.
double register
Two registers in one book. See: REGISTER. (1)
double scored
Paper that has been scored along two distinct, closely spaced lines. Double scoring allows for a partial rolling effect of the leaf and thereby improves turning. Cf: CRIMPING. See also: SCORE.
double-shear stroke
The multiple movement of the descending knife of a guillotine. First, there is the downward motion through the pile being cut; second, the single-shear motion across the face of the pile; and third, the double-shear motion where the cutting edge of the knife starts to cut higher at one side of the pile and by a rocking motion becomes approximately parallel when it reaches the bottom of the cut at the table. The double-shear stroke thus cuts more like a scissors, with the knife edge entering each sheet in the pile at its side and gradually cutting across it. The advantages of the double-shear stroke are: 1) less power required to cut: 2) less strain on the machine and the knife; 3) a more perfectly cut edge; and 4) a smoother face to the pile. Cf: SINGLE-SHEAR STROKE. (145)
double-sixteen folder
A particular folding machine capable of folding two 16page sections or one 32-page section. This folder can also be equipped to produce two 32-page sections, though of a smaller page size. Double 16s have three folding levels and four sets of folding rollers. The sheet is slit in half at the first folding level and each half is folded individually at right angles at the second level. It is folded once again at the third level, which has only one set of folding rollers; in this level, if the sections are to be outserts, each of the two folded sheets is folded in succession, whereas if the sections are inserts, both sheets are combined and folded together. A fourth folding level may be added to make the machine capable of producing two 32page sections. See also: FOLDING MACHINES. (320)
double skin
See: PIPING (1)
double slipcase
1. A SLIPCASE in two parts, one of which fits into the other. 2. A single slipcase fitted inside with a divider which enables it to accommodate two books while keeping their covers from touching.
double spread
double page spread double truck
1. Two facing pages on which printed matter is spread across as if they were one page. When an illustration is printed this way two blocks are used unless the spread is in the center of the section, in which case it is a CENTER SPREAD. Also called "two page spread." See also: CONJUGATE LEAVES. 2. The application of an adhesive to both adherends of an assembly. (139, 309)
double-stitched binder
A commercial type of "binder" sometimes used for in-house repair of books. It consists of two lengths of heavy cloth sewn together along two parallel lines, the distance between them being approximately the thickness of the book to be recased. Each layer is gummed on the outside surface. The spine of the book is attached to one layer of cloth along with the new endpapers, while the other side is attached to the inlay and boards. The standard widths (between rows of sewing) ranges between 1/4 inch and 3 inches. (138)
double thick cover paper
Two thicknesses of cover paper laminated together with adhesive to produce a very stiff cover paper. The more common basis weights are 100 pounds (two 50-pound sheets) and 130 pounds (two 65-pound sheets).
double-tone ink
A printing ink consisting of a mixture of an oil-soluble dye. a stable body pigment of a different color, and a medium. Such inks are used for the printing of halftones when a gravure effect is desired. The halftone is actually printed in the usual manner; however, sometime later overtones appear on the print, due to the dye of the ink spreading as a halo around the printed dots forming the image. Paper finish and tone also affect the result. (140)
double two sheets on
A method of sewing a book on tapes that is reputed to give still greater strength than the ALL ALONG method. Each section is sewn "two sheets on" with the preceding section, resulting in each section being sewn to the sections both above and below it. This gives greater holding power because two threads pass through each section; consequently, if one thread breaks the other still holds the section. Unless the first and last sections are sewn all along, however, the weakness of this method is that these sections, which receive the greatest strain when the book is being used—particularly the first section—are not held very securely. In addition, not all of the sections are held by the kettle stitches. (196)
doubling
The unintentional printing of a repeat image from a single form that is out of register. Doubling is particularly troublesome in halftone work because it adversely affects both tone and color values. It may be caused by several things, including rippling of the paper or premature contact with the form or offset blanket. It may also occur if sheets slip in the gripper or if the paper stretches during printing. Play in the press cylinders resulting in printback of ink picked up from the paper by the blanket can also cause doubling, as can the succeeding printing unit being slightly out of register with the original print. (17)
doublure
1. An ornamental inside lining of a book cover, which takes the place of the regular pastedown and fly leaf. It is usually of leather or (watered) silk, generally with a leather hinge and is often very elaborately decorated. The typical doublure consists of a silk fly leaf and a leather board covering, but sometimes both board covering and fly leaf are of silk; rarely, both are of leather. In a strict sense, however, the term refers only to leather linings. The doublure was known in Turkey at least as early as the 14th century, but the earliest known European doublures are a binding of about 1550 in the British Museum. Their use was revived in the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), but they were not used very extensively until about 1750, after which they became very popular. Doublures have been used continuously since that time—more so in France, where they have always been more popular than elsewhere. The word itself is French, meaning "lining" or "doubling of material." Also called "ornamental inside lining." 2. In a very general sense, an ornamental endpaper. See PLATE X. (172, 236, 335, 343)
doublure margin
In a strict sense, the space on the inside of a book cover between the DOUBLURE (1) and the edges of the board, which, when there is no doublure, are simply the TURN-INS (1). (173)
do up
An old term of English origin for the processes of folding, stitching and wrapping, or binding books in cloth.
down at the head
1. Sections which have not been fed properly to the head gauge of the cutting machine, causing an "up and down" appearance in the heads of the sections of a book. 2. Plates or maps that have not been placed up to the top edge of the leaf. (256)
downtime
The time during which a machine, department, or entire bindery is inactive during normal working hours, because of repairs, setting-up, lack of material, etc. Downtime becomes extremely costly in certain plants, such as paper mills, edition binderies, or binderies specializing in adhesive binding, because of the very high cost of the equipment used, as well as the cost of idle labor. (316)
drag
The pulling effect on the first and last sections (or leaves) of a book, caused by endpapers that have been attached directly to the sections (or leaves), rather than being sewn to the tapes or to a guard which is attached to the sections or leaves.
draw
1. The displacement of the cut sheets by the thickness of the guillotine cutting knife. Draw is a common cause of imperfectly cut paper. 2. The dragging action of the knife of a cutting machine, which tends to draw a book or pile of sheets out from under the clamp when cutting papers are heavily coated with clay. 3. The tension applied to paper between the sections of a papermaking machine, such as the press or drier sections. (17, 145)
drawer-handle tool
A finishing tool often used in England and the Netherlands during the second half of the 17th century. It was generally used in groups or sequences, and is so named because of its similarity to the handle of a drawer. (156, 347)
drawing color
The darkening of the impressions made in leather during blind tooling. This is done by means of a hot tool, a smoked tool (soot or lampblack [carbon] or carbon paper), or by wetting the leather with water or vinegar. (115)
drawing on
drawing around drawing over
A term sometimes applied to the process of drawing the leather covering over the spine of a book, preparatory to turning and setting the head.
drawn flanks
The flank area of hides and skins that have shrunk and display furrowed lines on the grain surface over the underlying blood vessels.
drawn grain
A grain in a leather which shows an irregular pattern of creases or narrow grooves, produced by tanning the skin in such a manner that the main thickness has contracted relative to the grain layer, which is then fixed in a puckered or "drawn together condition." (61)
drawn-in
drawing in
See: LACING-IN.
drawn marble
A general term applied to a type of edge marble consisting of multi-colored scales. The colors used are black, blue, or green, yellow and red, put on the size in that order. The black is dropped on in such a manner that the first drop comes into contact with the edge of the second, the second with that of the third, and so on, so that a color ribbon is formed. The blue (or green) is placed on the size in unconnected drops on both sides of the black. The yellow is dropped on both sides of the black so that each drop of blue has a yellow center and the red is placed so that each drop of yellow has a red center. The colors are then drawn by a stylus in wavy lines through each other past the black, producing white lines between the colors. The comb is then drawn across producing the scales. Variations of drawn marbles, in addition to comb edges, include the "American, " "bouquet, " "peacock, " and "snail." (264)
drawn-on covers
drawn-on solid
A term applied to the binding of square-backed periodical issues, pamphlets, and paperbacks, in which the cover is attached by gluing it to the spine. When the endpapers are pasted down, it is said to be "drawn-on solid." (156, 307)
drenching
An old method of deliming and acidifying unhaired skins, in lieu of BATING or PICKLING, by means of immersion in a water infusion of fermented barley, sour dough, flour, or the husks of cereals. The organic acids (lactic and acetic) in the solution neutralized any remaining lime in the stock and the particles of barley, etc., exerted a cleansing action of the skins, absorbing dirt and greases, etc. The cleansing action was very effective because the enzymes produced by the bacterial cells not only broke down the carbohydrates in the plant materials to produce acids but also digested the mucopolysaccharides of the ground substance. Drenching was often difficult to control, as the enzymes did not restrict their attack to the carbohydrates either in the solution or the skins, but often degraded the fibers of the dermal network as well. In addition, too much acid swelling was produced with resulting impairment of the skin structure and, therefore, of the quality of the leather produced. When drenching is used today, as in certain vegetable tannages calling for specific acid conditioning during the early stages of tanning, weak solutions of organic acids, such as lactic, acetic and formic, are used in lieu of fermented cereal solutions. Because of the gas bubbles of carbon dioxide produced by fermentation, which caused the skins to rise to the surface of the paddle, the process was also called "raising." (291, 363)
dressing
A general term applied to the series of processes involved in converting rough tanned hides and/ or crust leather into finished leather. See also: CURRYING; LEATHER DRESSINGS; PURE DRESSED. (61)
dried-in strain
dried-in stress
That part of potential strain or stress remaining in machine-made paper subsequent to manufacture. The property is caused by tension or restriction of shrinkage during drying as the web moves through the papermaking machine. Dried-in strain diminishes with time and can be reduced rapidly in the presence of high humidity or if the paper is wetted. See also: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR. (17)
drill
1. A strong, heavy, durable cotton fabric in twill weave, used as a base for certain grades of imitation leather, and sometimes finished for use as a covering material for very large books, e.g., blankbooks. 2. To make a round hole in paper for the purpose of overcasting or side sewing, usually by means of a high-speed drill. The term also applies to making holes in paper for loose-leaf, spiral, or similar type of binding. 3. A hand- or power-drill for making holes in book paper, binder's board, etc. (183, 256).
drive punch
A hollow steel punch used for making holes in leather, paper, etc., for eyelets and snap fasteners.
dropping colors
The placement of MARBLING colors on the size in the marbling trough. Also called "throwing colors." (327)
drum
A revolving cylindrical container used in leather manufacture for such operations as washing, tanning, dyeing, fatliquoring, etc. It is usually equipped with pegs inside for lifting and agitating the stock. The operation of tumbling the stock is known as "drumming."
drumming on
The process employed in attaching silk doublures. A special technique is required because adhesives cannot be applied directly to silk as they would penetrate the material. A piece of silk larger than the space enclosed by the turn-ins and leather joint is laid on a piece of paper the exact size of the enclosure. The edges of the silk are turned over the paper and glued to the back. The paper is then glued to the board. The silk is secured only at the edges and is otherwise free (like a drum), being drawn taut but not glued down. If the DOUBLURE extends to the very edge of the board, the enclosure is filled in with thin board to bring the board surface up to the level of the turn-ins and joint.
dry
To change the physical state of an adhesive applied to an adherend by the loss of solvent constituents by evaporation, absorption, or both.
drying
1. A method of preparing hides and skins for storage and/or transportation so as to prevent PUTREFACTIVE DAMAGE. Drying is employed principally in situations where insufficient salt is available for WET-SALTING, or where the cost of salt is too high to be economical. As bacteria must have a certain amount of moisture or free water if they are to attack a hide or skin, putrefaction can be effectively stopped or prevented by removal of the water to the point where the skin contains only 10 to 14% moisture. At this point the activity of the bacteria ceases, and some types are killed, while the others dry up into spore form, in which they can remain for long periods or until there is enough water for them to again become active. Curing by drying requires considerable care, especially with thick hides, because: 1) if drying is too slow, as may be the case in relatively wet, cold climates, putrefaction may occur before the moisture content is low enough to inhibit bacteria; and 2) if drying is too rapid and the temperature is too high, part of the wet skin will begin to gelatinize, which will show as holes in the hide when it is subsequently brought back to its normal moisture content. Too rapid drying also makes the hide hard and brittle and prevents drying of the inner layers. Drying as a means of curing is usually practiced in countries with hot, dry climates. The skins may be: 1) ground dried—by simply spreading them out on the ground, sometimes on a bed of twigs or stones. This is potentially dangerous because of poor ventilation on the ground side and too high a temperature on the exposed side, plus contamination with dirt; 2) sun dried—in which the skins are hung or laid over poles or wires in the sun. This method affords better ventilation and quicker drying, but may result in heat damage or pole or wire marks, showing as hard creases down the skin; 3) frame dried—in which the skins are loosely stretched out on frames, which are arranged so that they do not receive the direct rays of the mid-day sun. This results in less danger of heat damage and a superior, flatter shape; however, a skin shrinks on drying, and if it is stretched too tightly on the frame, overstraining may cause thinness and weakness; and 4) shade dried—where the skins are dried in an open-sided, covered shed, designed to avoid the direct heat of the sun but to allow good ventilation. See also: DRY-SALTING. 2. The process of allowing books to be "set" after each operation, involving the use of adhesives and/or seasoning a book in a press after casing-in or covering. (256, 291, 306, 363)
drying cracks
Fissures in the surface of a paper coating caused by an unduly rapid evaporation of the moisture in the coating.
drying memory
A characteristic of certain hot-melt adhesives which causes them to attempt to return to the shape or configuration they had when they set. When a hot-melt adhesive is applied to the flat spine of a book, and the book is subsequently rounded and backed, the "memory" of the adhesive tends to cause it to revert to the original flat configuration it had when it set, thus also flattening the spine of the book. This loss of round will eventually cause the binding to fail, i.e., the book will become loose in its case because of the strain of the backing shoulders caused by the loss of round.
drying temperature
The temperature to which an adhesive, the adherends, or both, is subjected in order to dry the adhesive. The temperature of the adhesive in process of drying may differ from the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. See also: CURING TEMPERATURE; SETTING TEMPERATURE. (309)
drying time
The length of time during which an adhesive, the adherends, or both, is allowed to dry, during which time no heat, pressure, or both is applied. See also: CURING TIME; SETTING TIME. (309)
drying tunnel
A tunnel in which damp leather is placed for drying in a current of air, often under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and humidity.
dry open
A method used on combination case bindings that involves hanging the book in its case, gluing down the cloth joints with the cover boards held open, and allowing the book to dry in that position before completing the binding process. (256)
dry pressing
An obsolete term applied to the operation of pressing out the indentations made in paper by the type during printing, so as to make the printed sheet smooth. Pressing of this nature was done in a standing- or hydraulic press, the printed sheets being placed between sheets of hard-rolled boards. (138)
dry-rub resistance
The resistance offered by the coated or uncoated surface of a material to wear resulting from mechanical action on the surface of the material. See also: WET-RUB RESISTANCE. (17)
dry-salting
A method of preserving hides and skins for storage and/or transportation before tanning, so as to prevent PUTREFACTIVE DAMAGE, by curing them in a very strong solution of brine—i.e., about 30 pounds of salt for every 10 gallons of cold water, followed by drying, or by WET-SALTING, followed by drying. In both methods, the hides are subject to a thorough and uniform salt penetration and are then hung up to dry. Dry-salting substantially reduces the weight of the hides and therefore the cost of transportation that is incurred in wet-salting; it also reduces or eliminates many of the dangers involved in simple DRYING (1). Large numbers of hides, however, require great quantities of salt. In dry-salting, care must be taken that: 1) drying is carried out gradually and evenly; otherwise the hides may become too hot and partially gelatinize, which not only prevents drying of the inner layer and causes the hides to become hard and brittle, but also results in the gelatinized parts leaving holes when the stock is later returned to its normal wet condition; and 2) when the hides are to be tanned, they must be soaked in water until they have taken up as much water as they had before curing; dry-salted hides require more time and more careful soaking than does wet-salted stock. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most commonly used salt for this process, but a salt "earth" known as KHARI, is actually to be preferred because it contains about 60% sodium sulfate (Na2 SO4), 20% magnesium sulfate (Mg SO4) and 5% sodium chloride, and is less hygroscopic than common salt. It is more suitable for the hot, humid areas during the rainy seasons, from which most dry-salted hides are prepared. (248, 291, 363)
dry size
A powdered size used in goldtooling suede leathers, velvet, silk, and also cameo papers. See also: ALBUMEN; BLOCKING POWDER.
dry stamping
A technique used in the production of multi-colored paste patterns for end- and other decorative papers. Colored paste is first brushed over the surface of the paper, the paste brush then being drawn from top to bottom of the sheet in regular strokes, leaving a uniform layer of color on which parallel brush marks are faintly discernible. While the surface is still wet, a dry printing implement is pressed on the wet color. When it is removed, some of the color adheres to it, leaving a faint unit on the paper of a lighter color than the remaining background. An engraved brayer is also used at times to create a continuous design. (86)
dry strength
The resistance to failure of an adhesive joint measured immediately after drying under specified conditions. See also: WET STRENGTH. (309)
dry tack
That characteristic of some adhesives, and especially nonvulcanizing rubber adhesives, to adhere to themselves during the period in which volatile constituents are evaporating, even though they may appear to be dry. Also called "aggressive tack." (309)
dubbin
A paste prepared from cod oil and tallow, the proportions of which vary according to the time of year—in winter generally two parts oil to one of tallow, and the reverse in the summer. There are two types of tallow in general use, one of which is mutton (melting point 40-45° C.), and the other beef (melting point 35-40° C.). Dubbin is used to incorporate oil into some tanned leathers in the STUFFING (2) or CURRYING processes. (306)
Dubuisson, Pierre-Paul
fl 1746-1762
An 18th century French bookbinder, who succeeded ANTOINE MICHEL PADELOUP as royal binder. Dubuisson excelled in the creation of dentelles similar to those of the Deromes, and was an accomplished heraldic designer as well as bookbinder and gilder. He, and his father, Rene, specialized in the binding of almanacs, devising the shortcut of decorating their covers with well-designed engraved plaques designed to be used in a press, instead of working with individual tools. (94, 347)
duck
A plain, closely woven, durable fabric, now usually made from cotton. It is woven in various weights and used for covering large, heavy books, especially blankbooks, and other large stationery bindings. (264)
dull-coated
A paper having a coated surface that is low in gloss. It is usually a free sheet base stock coated two sides with calcium carbonate or blanc fixe, and finished with a flat or smooth surface offering minimum gloss or glare. It is made to standard book sizes and weight, and is suitable for printing fine halftones. (17, 156)
dull gilt
The edges of a book that have been gilt and then burnished through thin paper, producing a solid, uniformly dull metallic surface. See also: GILT EDGES. (154, 335)
dumb
A more-or-less obsolete term used in lieu of "blind" with reference to blind printing, blind tooling, blind perforating, etc. (256)
dummy
1. A made-up text block, generally of blank leaves, sewn and trimmed but not cased or covered and meant to represent the bulk of a forthcoming publication. 2. The layout of a forthcoming book, including the actual arrangement of the printed matter, specifications for type, illustrations, etc. 3. A piece of leather or cloth mounted on a board to show the exact size and lettering of a publication, usually a periodical. See also: RUB (1). (129, 139, 156, 234)
duodecimo
See: TWELVEMO.
duodo bindings
Bindings executed by Parisian gilders for Pietro Duodo, Venetian ambassador to Henri IV of France, 1594-1597. The distinctive feature of his bindings (and apparently most of his library consisted of small books similarly bound) was rows of laurel wreaths enclosing various small flowers, the central wreath enclosing his arms. This style was imitated by English binders of the early 18th century and by French binders in the late ]9th century. (140, 347)
duplex
1. A term used with reference to the texture, finish, or color of a paper. A duplex texture refers to a paper that may be smooth on one side and rough on the other, while a duplex finish refers to a paper that may have a linen finish on one side and a burlap finish on the other, and so on. A duplex color refers to a paper that is stained on one side only, or that is colored with different colors on either side. A duplex color may also be obtained by laminating together two papers of different colors. 2. A general term applied to a paper or board with two or more plies. (17)
duplex book trimmer
A type of cutting machine having two trimming knives parallel to each other on opposite sides above a central cutting table. The table consists of a cutting block equipped to clamp the pile firmly. Two piles of books, each 5 to 6 inches high, are placed spine to spine against the gauges. This brings the fore edges of each pile on opposite sides at the table and under the knives. After cutting the fore edges, the other edges of the book are brought into position by giving the table a quarter turn. This also changes the position of the knives on the knife-bars above, drawing them closer for trimming the heads and tails of both piles simultaneously. See also: THREE-KNIFE TRIMMER. (142)
duplex paper
See: DUPLEX. (1)
durability (of paper)
The degree to which a paper retains its original strength properties while at the same time being relatively heavily used, as a manuscript or book. Realistically, the expression implies a paper which has a high initial strength, e.g., a paper carefully produced from cotton fibers, rags, or a high grade chemical wood pulp, as opposed to one produced from a combination of chemical and mechanical wood pulps, for example, which has relatively little initial strength. Some 80 years subsequent to the development of the (Fourdrinier) papermaking machine, there was the beginning of a widespread concern over the relatively rapid deterioration of paper, and in the years between 1885 and 1930, various governmental and other groups, such as the United States Department of Agriculture, the German government, the Royal Society of Arts (Great Britain), and the Library Association of Great Britain, investigated the problem. The earliest of these investigations focused attention on the method of paper manufacture; only much later did it become apparent that the materials used in making paper, the care taken in stock preparation, and the sizing and bleaching agents utilized also had to be considered. Research into the qualities (both durability and permanence) of paper has been fairly extensive in recent decades. The overall collective results of this research would seem to indicate that the retardation of paper deterioration requires: 1) careful control of stock preparation at every stage of manufacture, and avoidance of excessive beating of the fibers, which shortens and therefore weakens the fibers and also sometimes prevents proper felting during sheet formation. In addition, impurities, inherent in the stock and/or incorporated from equipment, e.g., copper or iron, must be avoided or removed insofar as possible; 2) great care taken to remove the chemicals used in pulping, e.g., sulfates and sulfites, so as to avoid subsequent hydrolysis of the paper; 3) the removal of unbleached cellulose fibers so as to prevent possible deterioration; 4) avoidance of excessive mineral loadings, as too much loading inhibits felting of the fibers and also weakens the paper; 5) tub-sizing (preferably with gelatin) of archival and/or papers to be handled frequently, as this type of sizing not only adds a protective film to the paper but also strengthens the paper considerably; 6) that bleaching agents, e.g., chlorine compounds, be removed as completely as possible in order to avoid the possibility of the formation of hydrochloric acid in the paper; 7) that mechanical wood pulp, which contains a relatively high percentage of impurities, e.g., lignin, and which also has very short fibers, should be avoided in archival and heavy use papers; and 8) that the paper be manufactured in such a manner that it retains its coatings over a long period in storage. Books, documents, and other archival materials should be housed in airconditioned quarters having controlled temperature and relative humidity. Taking into consideration that people probably will be working in the storage (bookstack) area, a reasonable temperature might be 60 to 65° F, with a relative humidity of 50 to 60%. The area should also be as dark as practical, with time switches that turn off lights automatically. The area should be completely free from dirt, and insects and their larvae. If fluorescent lighting is used, which gives off less heat than incandescent lighting, it should be filtered, as the ultraviolet light radiated from fluorescent lights over a long period of time could cause deterioration of book papers. (32, 36, 40, 143, 157, 198)
duro-flexible binding
duro-flexile
A style of library binding devised and patented by Cedric Chivers in the latter part of the 19th century. The duro-flexible binding was designed to give additional strength where most needed, i.e., in the hinges and first and last sections. This was done by lining the endpapers with jaconet and using a three-jointed endpaper. The books were sewn all along on linen tapes. The spines were lined with a pliable leather, and both tapes and lining were secured between split boards. They were covered with a thin, vegetable-tanned pigskin, with linen on the sides. (94, 236)
dust cover
1. See: BOOK JACKET. 2. A blank leaf inserted at the end of a pamphlet or booklet having a self-cover. dusting. The process of spreading ground, raw vegetable tanning materials over and between hides being tanned in layer vats to add to the tanning strength of the tan liquor. Dusting was a common practice before the days of concentrated tanning extracts. (363)
dust jacket
dust wrapper
See: BOOK JACKET.
Dutch antique marble
A modification of the NONPAREIL MARBLE.
Dutch binding
An obsolete term for a style of binding that includes a vellum or parchment spine, usually of a green color. (152)
Dutch corner
See: LIBRARY CORNER.
Dutch gilt papers
Dutch flowered papers
A type of highly decorative papers that were not marbled but were printed by means of blocks of wood or metal, or by engraved rollers. They were used from about 1700, and, although known as "Dutch gilt" or "Dutch flowered," they were actually produced in Germany and Italy, the Dutch connection possibly arising from the fact that the papers were imported into Holland for reexport to France and England, although not all of them arrived in France and England by that route. A great variety of designs was employed in these papers, many being in imitation of the brocades and damasks of the period. Some have figures of huntsmen, animals and birds, saints, mythological beasts, and Renaissance strap and scroll patterns; many arc embossed, and some are printed on colored paper. The probable method of their execution consisted of transferring gold size to the paper by means of wooden plates or engraved rollers, the former first being pressed onto a pad saturated with the size, the latter having the size painted on. When the size on the paper had dried to the correct state, the gold was dusted on, and, when the size was dry, the superfluous gold was brushed off. If it was desired to have the gold raised the size was thickened with yellow ochre or red lead. The method of coloring is unknown, but it may have been done by dabbing or stencilling. (217, 236)
Dutch gold
Dutch leaf Dutch metal
The generic name for a blocking foil that has found considerable use as a substitute for gold leaf since the latter years of the 19th century. It was introduced in Germany and its use, in sheet form, expanded rapidly, followed by a similar foil in roll form. Although often referred to as "bronze leaf," bronze being an alloy of copper and tin, it is actually composed of brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc. As the amount of copper is increased, the color of the leaf deepens. Unlike gold leaf, Dutch gold discolors, tarnishing more rapidly in polluted environments. When blocked on leather, the leaf or foil turns green very quickly; and even when blocked on cloth or paper, it will eventually discolor. Discoloration is due to the action of gases in the atmosphere, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), plus heat and light. Great differences exist in the rate of tarnishing among the various brass foils, however; flat foil for some reason discolors less rapidly than the rolled Dutch gold. This may be due to the high melting-point waxes used on the flat foil but not on the rolled, which coat the metallic particles after they are deposited on the material in the blocking process. This coating apparently acts as a (partial) seal against the deteriorative effect of the atmosphere. Because of the chemical action of the plasticizers in pyroxylin fabrics, the deterioration of the foil is more rapid on these fabrics than on starch filled fabrics. (233, 236, 264, 356)
Dutch marble
A marble pattern executed by dropping a series of colors, usually yellow, and blue (in that order), which are then drawn together and intermingled by means of a comb, so that instead of shells and veins being produced, the pattern consists of a series of small, sharp scallops. The Dutch marble is a pattern that has been used frequently in blankbook binding from the early 19th century to the present day.
Dutch metal
See: DUTCH GOLD.
Dutch paper
Originally, a handmade paper produced in Holland, but today any deckle-edge hand- or machine-made paper manufactured in Holland. It is a superior grade of paper used for high quality books, and, if given an antique finish, as artists' paper. Use of the expression "Dutch" may stem from the fact that in Holland handmade or imitation handmade paper is still called "Hollandsch papier," which does not necessarily mean paper made by hand in Holland. { 17)
Dutch sewing
An obsolete (traditional) method of sewing a book, using strips of parchment or vellum in lieu of the customary bands or cords. (152)
dwell
dwell time
1. See: CLAMP DWELL. 2. The period of time during which the heated finishing tool is in contact with the leather or gold leaf.
dye
A natural or synthetic coloring material, whether soluble or insoluble, which imparts its color to a material by staining or being imbibed by it, and which is employed from a solution of fine dispersion, sometimes with the aid of a MORDANT. Dyes differ from pigments, which are insoluble materials that impart color by being spread over a surface, or by being mixed in the form of an ingredient, as in the coloring of some papers and leathers. Natural dyes, such as indigo, madder, fustic, butternut, orchil, logwood, catechu, tumeric, etc., are seldom used today. The discovery in the mid-19th century that dyes could be produced artificially from a constituent of coal tar was the first step in the decline of the use of natural dyestuffs. In large part this was because the quality and effectiveness of natural dyestuffs depended on a variety of factors, over which the user might or might not have control. These included: 1) the problem of storage; 2) the time involved in extracting color from the raw materials; 3) dependence upon a growing season; and 4) impurities. On the other hand, dyes made in the laboratory: 1) do not depend on growing seasons; 2) do not have to be ground or chipped to be made usable; 3) are, in many cases (e.g., indigo), chemically the same as the natural dyes; and 4) since they are manufactured in pure form, are unaffected by the impurities that reduce the quality or effectiveness of their natural counterparts. However, unlike synthetic dyestuffs, natural dyes produce what can be described as unique colors. They can never be duplicated exactly, and this undoubtedly adds to their appeal. No two natural dye lots are identical for the simple reason that each is going to contain impurities peculiar to the plant material from which the dye is produced; therefore, the very characteristics of natural dyes which made them obsolete also make them appealing to many craftsmen of today. An enormous range of dyestuffs can be obtained from the manufacturers of chemical dyestuffs. They are still often referred to as "coal tar dyes" or, perhaps more commonly, "aniline dyes," because the early materials were prepared from aniline and many of the intermediates required in their manufacture are obtained by the distillation of coal tar. See also: ACID DYES; BASIC DYES; DIRECT DYES; LAKE; PIGMENT. (4, 72, 235)
dyed white
The neutralized or "corrected" white paper produced by the addition of blue or red coloring to the bleached pulp.
dyeing
The art or process of coloring, or altering the color of a material by the addition of another different colored material, in such a manner that the change may be considered permanent.
earth colors
Pigments manufactured by refining naturally colored clays, rocks, and earth, and also the pure iron oxide reds, such as Indian red light red, etc. The iron oxides, although artificial counterparts, are classified with the native red earths. Earth colors are also classified as mineral pigments, along with the manufactured inorganic pigments. They are characterized by good light and heat fastness. (233, 306)
ecclesiastical bindings
A German style of bookbinding in the medieval fashion which became very popular in England following the marriage of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in 1840. It was used especially for devotional and theological works. Its principal features included thick, heavy, bevelled boards (occasionally papier-mâché was substituted for wood), which were sometimes bevelled only in the middle of each edge, leaving the corners in full thickness. The books were covered in either calfskin of a khaki or brown color or brown morocco and were heavily tooled in blind or black, often with the medieval thin-thick-thin triple fillet. The bindings had OXFORD CORNERS, bright red edges (or gilt over red, and sometimes dull gilt edges which were then GAUFFERED), heavily rounded spines and marbled endpapers in the Dutch pattern. The books were sometimes fitted with clasps. While the bindings were generally well executed, the unusually heavy boards frequently caused the cords to break, resulting in the text block falling out of the hollow-backed "case." Also called "antique," "monastic," or "divinity" bindings. (236)
écrasé leather
A leather which has been crushed or flattened by mechanical means so as to give it a particular grained appearance. See also: GLACÉ. (156)
edge decoration
A general term used with reference to the application of gold leaf, color, ink, or other medium, or the tooling, painting, or other form of decoration, of one or more edges of a book. See: ANTIQUE EDGES; CIRCUIT EDGES; COLORED BRUSHED TOP; COLORED BURNISHED TOP; COLORED EDGES; COLORED UNDER GILT; FORE-EDGE PAINTING; GAUFFERED EDGES; GILT EDGES; GILT IN THE ROUND; GILT IN THE SQUARE; MARBLED EDGES; RED EDGES; RED UNDER GOLD EDGES; ROUGH GILT; SPRINKLED EDGES; TOP EDGE GILT; WHITE EDGES.
edge gilding
See: GILT EDGES.
edge gilding machine
A machine, used mainly in edition binding, for gilding the edges of books. The books are placed in the machine and the edges are prepared for gilding in the usual manner. A sheet of gold foil is placed over the edges, and heat and pressure are applied by two heated silicone rubber rollers. The first roller, which is used in conjunction with a sheet of fiberglass, smooths the foil over the edges and insulates the foil from heat until it is under pressure. The second roller then presses directly onto the foil and seals it to the edges. Large numbers of books are edge gilded in this manner, particularly in the Bible publishing business. (229, 264)
edge index
A form of the INDEX consisting of marks on the edges of the pages of a book produced by means of printed rules that run to the edge of the sheet (bled) and can thus be seen on the fore edge of the closed book. Edge indexing has the advantage of being part of the printing process, and also allows the use of virtually unlimited headings, as well as adding nothing to the overall cost of binding. Its principal disadvantage is that the user does not know what the mark on the edge refers to while the book is closed. (234)
edge marbling machine
A machine used for decorating the edges of book in imitation of MARBLING. The principle of operation is somewhat similar to that of the platen press. The edge of the book is pressed against the printing surface which has been inked by the form rollers. Any design, color, or combination of colors can be used. The machine may also be used for city directories, etc., where advertising matter is printed on the edges. (264)
edge roll
An engraved finishing tool used to impress a design on the edges of the boards of a book, usually one covered in leather. (274)
edge rolled
A method of decorating the edges of the boards of a book, usually one covered in leather, in which the edges are tooled in gold or blind by means of an engraved EDGE ROLL. (94, 261)
edges
The three outer extremities of the folded sections of book, usually trimmed and sometimes decorated in some manner. See: EDGE DECORATION.
edging
1. The beveling of an edge, usually of a leather covering, but also paper, vellum, etc., by means of an EDGING KNIFE. The purpose of "edging" a leather cover is to prevent the leather turn-in from bulging, especially at the head and tail of the spine. When applied to paper, the term generally refers to the process of cutting or beveling two pieces of paper so that there is no high or low spot where they are joined. In craft bookbinding today, edging of paper is more or less obsolete, having been superceded by the use of long-fibered Japanese copying paper. 2. See: EDGE ROLLED.
edging knife
A knife made of hardened steel and used to pare the edges of leather on the flesh side, vellum, paper, etc. See also: PARING KNIFE. (133)
edition
1. All of the copies of a work printed from the same type or plates, either issued at one time or at intervals. In the latter case, the edition may consist of a number of impressions. A statement of the edition of a book is often printed on the title page or its verso, along with the particulars of any previous editions on the verso. 2. A number of copies of a work printed at any one time, either when the text has undergone changes or the type has been partially or entirely reset, or the format of the book has been altered. The term is also applied to the copies which made up the original issue, i.e., the "first edition," as well as any subsequent editions, e.g., 2nd, revised, etc. 3. The embodiment of a work in a particular typographical form, with different editions embodying an identical text, or varying texts. 4. One of the various editions of a newspaper. See also: EXTRA-ILLUSTRATED; FINE PAPER COPY; FIRST EDITION; IMPRESSION (5); LARGE PAPER COPY; LIBRARY EDITION; LIMITED EDITION. (12, 69, 156, 234)
edition binding
The business of binding identical books in quantity, usually for a publisher or distributor, as opposed to binding done for an individual and LIBRARY BINDING. Edition binding usually involves the production of a type of binding known as case binding, generally in hard covers. Paperback books and other books with flexible and semi-flexible covers are produced by adhesive binderies, although adhesive binding is by no means unknown in edition binding. The designation "case binding" or "casebound" indicates that the cover has two distinct characteristics: it is made separately from the book, and it consists of rigid or flexible boards covered with cloth, paper, leather substitutes, and, upon occasion, leather or other materials, in such a manner that the covered material surrounds the outside as well as the edges of the boards. The major distinguishing characteristic of edition binding is the extensive use of semi-automatic and automatic equipment, some of which operates at very high speeds. This equipment is capable of processing thousands of books in a relatively short time, primarily because all of the books processed in one run are of identical size and format. Because a large, modern edition bindery uses as much automatic (and expensive) equipment as possible, edition runs smaller than about 1,500 copies are not ordinarily handled by edition binderies but by job binders and sometimes even library binders. The equipment commonly found in a large edition bindery includes: Blocking presses Board cutters Book jacketing machines Bundling presses Case-making machines Casing-in machines Cloth slitting machines Cutter-perforating machines Endpaper-signature stripping machines Endpaper tipping machines Folding machines Gathering machines Glueing-off machines Nipping presses Rounding and backing machines Saddle-stitching machines Sewing machines Three-knife trimmers Tipping machines Triple liner and headbanding machines Wrapping machines (book jacketing machines). The progression of modern edition binding from purely handwork to a high degree of mechanization followed a course which may be divided into four fairly distinct phases: 1) all processes performed by hand or hand-manipulated tools—about 1780 to 1830; 2) a simplifying and speeding up of the processes while the work is still performed largely with hand tools, a change which was due largely to the pressures exerted by the increased speed of printing presses—1830 to 1870; 3) progressive introduction of machines to handle certain manipulations, e.g., folding, gathering, sewing, etc., with the balance of the processes still being done largely by hand—1870 to 1910; and 4) the present state in which the great majority of the processes are performed by machines, a phase which marks the complete breaking away of the modern industry from the parent craft of hand bookbinding—about 1950 to the present. (58, 89, 299, 314, 320, 339)
edition deluxe
1. A "special" edition of work containing items not found in ordinary editions of the same work, such as additional plates (See: EXTRA-ILLUSTRATED), a larger sheet size (See: LARGE PAPER COPY), etc. 2. A so-called superior edition of a work, characterized by a better grade of paper (sometimes handmade), superior typography, a greater or lesser degree of embellishment, sometimes a better quality of binding, and perhaps a limited number of copies (which are sometimes signed and numbered). The "edition deluxe" is as old as printing itself. In the 15th century a certain number of copies of any high quality book would usually be printed on vellum, or colored paper, such as the blue paper copies of Aldus Manutius, and "fine paper" copies, at an elevated price, were common in the 17th and 18th centuries, while large paper copies have been issued for the past three centuries. Although not necessarily considered "edition deluxe," many thousands of books have been specially (and often elaborately) bound for private collectors. 3. A cheap edition called "deluxe" or "deluxe edition," by a publisher for promotional reasons. (69, 94, 156)
Edwards of Halifax
A distinguished English (Yorkshire) family of bookbinders and booksellers, of whom William Halifax (1723-1808) and his son James (1756-1816) were the most famous. William Halifax was known for his revival of the FORE-EDGE PAINTING and ETRUSCAN CALF bindings, the latter, which, if not evolved by William, were successfully adopted by him. He also used vellum for covering books, and decorated them with painting of portraits or scenes. In order to protect the paintings Halifax developed his own process of rendering the vellum transparent (although he was by no means the first to make TRANSPARENT VELLUM or parchment) by first soaking it in a solution of pearl ash (potassium carbonate (K2CO3)) and then subjecting it to high pressure. The paintings were executed on the underside of the vellum, which was then lined with white paper before being placed on the book. The patent which James Halifax was issued for this process (1785) refers to both the painting of the material, as well as the method of making the vellum transparent: however, it is not entirely clear whether the patent was granted for rendering the vellum transparent, for the paintings themselves, or both. Although it was probably for the vellum process, other techniques for rendering vellum (parchment) transparent were known more than 200 years before his time. His technique was obviously successful, as the colors remain fresh to this day. Having the painting on the underside of the vellum also allows the covers to be cleaned when soiled. It is known that these bindings were being produced at least as early as 1781 even though the patent was not issued until 1785. There is considerable evidence to indicate that James Halifax was a businessman rather than a craftsman, and, since the books were produced in Halifax at a time when James was elsewhere, it is presumed that William invented the process. All three specialities seem to have been carried on both in the Edwards' home town of Halifax, where Thomas (1762-1834), another son, was in business until 1826, and in London, where James and John (1785-c 1791) opened a book store in 1784, and Richard (1768-1827) another in 1792. Regardless of its place of origin, however, any binding of the period which approximates any of the three specialities in style, as well as the vellum bindings with blue lettering pieces and key-pattern gold tooling in the prevailing neo-classical style, is apt to be attributed to Edwards of Halifax. (69, 113, 140, 236)
egg albumen
The dried whites of eggs obtained usually as a yellowish powder, and used in the finishing of some leathers, as well as for making GLAIR. (259)
Egyptian marble
A cover marble executed by coloring the leather covering (before it is attached to the book) with blue, which when dry, is followed by a coating of glair, then potash water (alum). Black is then sprinkled over the leather, and when the black is nearly dry, the leather is washed with water. (95)
E.I
An abbreviation of East India, a descriptive term applied to crust, vegetable tanned cowhide (kip), buffalo hide, or skins such as goat, calf or seep, originating in the Indian Subcontinent and tanned in India, mainly in the south, and especially around Madras. (61)
eighteen-mo
One-eighteenth of a sheet. The eighteen-mo is an unusual method of imposition resulting in a section of 18 leaves, or 36 pages. One method of producing it is to fold a sheet concertina-wise, followed by an envelope fold, followed by a right angle fold. Although used in book production between about 1770 and 1840, it is seldom, if ever, used in bookwork today. It is, however, sometimes used in advertising work, etc., where the folded sheet is to be untrimmed and remain folded in compact form until unfolded for reading. Also written 18mo. Also called "octodecimo."
elasticity
The capability of a material to recover from deformation resulting from stress. The property is determined more by the ability of the material to return to its initial shape than by its capacity to be deformed or extended. See also: EXTENSIBILITY; STRETCH. (17)
elastin
The yellow connective tissue of the skin which furnishes structural support for the blood vessels, sebaceous and sudoriferous glands, and the like. It is woven in the collagen fibers and makes up approximately 0.3% of the structural protein of the hide composition. (305, 363)
electric pen
electric stylus
An electrically heated instrument used over a strip of metallic foil to letter the classification number and/or other bibliographical information on the covers of books. (156)
elephant folio
A large FOLIO (1), approximately 23 by 14 inches in size. See also: BOOK SIZES. (140)
ellagic acid
A crystalline phenolic dilactone (Cl4H6O8) obtained from oak galls and bark and probably formed by the hydrolysis of tannin. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.
Elliott, Thomas
active 1712-1763
A London bookbinder, Elliott was apprenticed to Robert Steele in 1703 and finished his service in 1712. He became bookbinder to Robert Harley, and worked in the HARLEIAN STYLE, which was forced on both him and Christopher Chapman by either Harley, or Harley's librarian, Humfrey Wanley. The books the two produced were solidly bound in a red morocco said to be of an inferior quality. (94, 246)
Elmendorf test
A standard test for determining the internal TEARING RESISTANCE of paper, named after its inventor, Armin Elmendorf. The Elmendorf test determines the average force in grams required to tear a single sheet of paper after the tear has been started. In conducting the test, one or more sheets are torn through a fixed distance by means of a pendulum. The effort expended in tearing is measured by the loss of potential energy of the pendulum. The scale of the device is calibrated to indicate the average force exerted. If multiple sheets are used, which is necessary if the reading for one sheet would fall below the scale, resistance of one sheet is determined by the formula: grams of force X 16 ------------------- = grams required to tear one sheet, number of sheets where 16 is the conversion factor, unless an augmenting weight is added to the pendulum, in which case the conversion factor becomes 32. The Elmendorf tester consists essentially of a stationary clamp, a movable clamp carried on a pendulum formed by a sector of a circle free to swing on a ball bearing, a knife mounted on a stationary post for starting the tear, means for leveling the instrument, means for holding the pendulum in a raised position and for releasing it instantaneously, and means for registering the maximum arc through which the pendulum swings when released. (72)
email en resolle
A design consisting of enamel and gold inlaid in glass or rock crystal, and which has been used to a very limited extent as a means of decorating the covers of books. The technique apparently was used by only one person, a French goldsmith, who based his patterns on the engravings of Etienne Delaune. To produce the email en resolle the design is cut into the surface of the ground and then filled with strips of gold leaf. The details of the design are then modeled by very delicate chasing on the surface of the leaf. Translucent colored enamels are then floated over specified areas of the gold. (347)
emblematical bindings
Appropriate ornaments or symbolical motifs tooled on a leather binding. Some outstanding examples of emblematical bindings were produced, especially in France of the 16th century. (69)
embossed
1. A leaf or leaves of a book which have had letters or a design raised in relief for the purpose of indicating ownership. The leaves most commonly treated in this manner are the title page and page 99, or descending multiples of 11, i.e., page 88, 77, 66, etc. Embossing is more or less obsolete today, as most libraries have come to realize that it is not only expensive but largely ineffective as a means of deterring theft. 2. Paper, leather, cloth, etc., on which a raised or depressed design is imparted for decorative effects. See also: CUIR-BOUILLI. 3. A design in the covering material of a book, usually one covered in leather, but sometimes cloth or paper, which is in relief. 4. Lettering, or a design, which is raised above the surface of the paper of a book. See: EMBOSSING. 5. See: EMBOSSED LEATHER. (12, 58)
embossed leather
A leather which has been embossed or printed with a raised design, either in imitation of the grain pattern of some animal, or even unrelated to any natural grain pattern. Cowhide is frequently embossed to give the appearance of another leather, including MOROCCO. (61)
embosser
1. The device (usually hand-operated but sometimes operated by air pressure) used for raising letters or a design on the surface of paper, usually for purposes of establishing ownership. See: EMBOSSED (1). 2 The operator of such a device.
embossing
1. The process of raising a surface pattern on leather by means of engraved cylinders or plates, generally employing both heat and pressure. The patterns produced are often simulations of the grain patterns of some animal skins but may also be unrelated to any natural pattern. One roller or plate, in which the design is engraved, is made of steel, while the other, having a softer surface, is made of cotton or papier-mâché. The leather is embossed by passing it over a heated, steel cylinder, thermostatically controlled at a pre-set temperature, or in a press, of which there are two basic types: one in which the pressure is applied by a roller mounted on a moving carriage, and another in which pressure is applied to the platen by mechanical or hydraulic means, but without any lateral movement. In both cases the leather is pressed against a heated plate which is either smooth and polished so that the leather is ironed, or engraved to impart an artificial grain pattern. While the latter type of press is designed to employ heavier pressures, the first type is superior in that the movement of the roller causes a small amount of slip, which imparts a more lively character to the leather. On the other hand, the advantage of the mechanical or hydraulic press is that it can dwell at full pressure, which is desirable for producing deep effects in some embossing processes. It is important that the design embossed in the leather be as permanent as possible. In this regard both the structure of the skin and the type of tannage are important. A very full and tight structure is required. Calfskin gives the ideal structure for the finer leathers and cowhide for the coarser. Vegetable tannage is far superior to chrome because it builds up the fibers to a much greater extent and makes the structure correspondingly tighter. Embossing of leather is sometimes (and perhaps frequently) a means of simulating the grain pattern of a superior leather on an inferior and/or less expensive skin. An example of this would be a calfskin embossed in imitation of MOROCCO. 2. The process of imparting a raised or depressed design in paper: 1) by passing the paper between an engraved steel roll or plate and another roll or plate of a soft or compressible material, such as paper or cotton; 2) by pressing the paper between strong, coarse fabrics; or 3) by passing the paper between etched male and female iron or steel rolls. The operation is used to create decorative effects and is generally applied to book, blotting, or cover papers. Plate or spot embossing is a method by which individual designs, as distinguished from all-over patterns, are embossed. This technique is accomplished by means of vertical presses, the paper being embossed by placing it between the embossing die and the counter or make-ready of the press and forcing it into the intaglio areas of the die. 3. To impress the marks of ownership into a page of a book by means of a device employing a sunken die and a raised counterpart which raises the design above the paper. See also: PERFORATING. (2) 4. To block the title, author, or other bibliographical information, on the cover of a book. See also: BLOCKING (1). 5. See: BLIND BLOCKING. (94, 189, 233, 234, 264)
embossing plate
A metal plate cut or etched below its surface and used to produce a design in relief on a material such as leather or paper.
embossing press
See: BLOCKING PRESS; EMBOSSING (1, 2); FLY EMBOSSING PRESS.
embrittlement
1. The drying and solidification of an adhesive to the point where it exhibits fissures and stress cracks under conditions of low impact. Embrittlement may also be a condition resulting from the migration of the adhesive plasticizer into the adherend, or the solidification and stratification of a cast adhesive coating due to exposure to atmospheric conditions. 2. A loss of flexibility, primarily in paper. See: BRITTLENESS. (222)
embroidered bindings
Books that are covered by material embellished with needlework, following a design made specifically for the purpose of decorating a particular book. Embroidered bindings were and still are produced throughout most of the West, but the art reached its highest achievement in England, where the quality of the bindings was unsurpassed. The earliest known English example is of a 13th century manuscript Psalter owned by Anne de Felbrigge; however, the art reached its pinnacle of development in the first half of the 17th century. The designs employed for embroidered bindings may be conveniently divided into four classes: heraldic, figure, floral, and arabesque. The heraldic designs were always used to indicate ownership, and were most often found on royal books bound in velvet, rarely on silk or satin, and almost never on canvas. Figure designs may be subdivided into three classes: scriptural, such as Solomon, David, etc.; symbolical, such as figures of faith, hope, and the like; and portraits, such as dukes, duchesses, etc. The scriptural designs were generally done on canvas, while the symbolical and portraits were mainly on satin, and (rarely) velvet. The floral and arabesque designs were usually done on small books bound in satin, but were done occasionally on canvas and velvet. Gold, silver, and silk threads were used for the best work, and were often protected from wear by bordering ornamentation in higher relief formed by threads of silk wound around closely or loosely with fine flat strips of silver-gilt metal. These and other materials were worked singly or twisted together in a variety of manners and worked in a great number of stitches. At times, particularly in the later periods, flat metal shapes were stitched on to save time. A more attractive APPLIQUÉ WORK technique was to make a spiral of metal which, when flattened, looked like a series of rings, and was sometimes used as a border. Because canvas is generally considered to be a relatively uninteresting cloth, it was generally worked all over, while when velvet covers were used, large areas were not covered, not so much because of the beauty of the velvet, but because of the difficulties involved in sewing piled material. Applique decoration overcame this problem, but when the designs were actually worked directly on the velvet they were almost always in heavy gimp or gold cord. The edges of large numbers of embroidered bindings were gilt and gauffered (sometimes with the use of color) in keeping with the ornate character of the binding. Other forwarding techniques appear to have been the same as for leather bindings, although the rounding of the spines was less pronounced. The sections were sewn on strips of vellum or thongs, and, while the latter were sometimes left raised, frequently they were filled in between so as to produce a smooth spine. Later examples were sometimes sewn on cords, which were raised, sawn-in, filled in, or flattened to avoid unevenness. Embroidered bindings more or less went out of fashion after the 17th century. See PLATE III. (28, 111, 236, 280, 342, 357)
emery
A common, dark, granular corundum containing varying amounts of magnetite or hematite and used in the form of powder, grains, or larger masses, for grinding and polishing purposes.
emulsion
A disperse system in which both phases are liquids, one of which is generally water or an aqueous solution, and the other an oil or other water immiscible liquid. The droplets of the dispersed liquid are known as the inner phase of the emulsion because it appears to be inside the liquid medium. The surrounding liquid (the continuous phase), on the other hand, is called the external phase. The dispersion may occur naturally or it may be prepared by mechanical methods (dripping or slowly pouring one of the ingredients into the other while stirring vigorously), or developed as a result of any of several polymerization processes. The liquid in the continuous phase is usually water when the emulsion is designed for pigment coating, as of paper, for example, or for oil penetration, as in the FATLIQUORING of leather. For certain other types of application, the medium may be an organic liquid. To form a stable emulsion, a third ingredient must be present; it is called an emulsifier, or emulsifying agent, and forms absorbed films around the tiny globules of the dispersed fluid to prevent them from coalescing. A common emulsifier is soap. A familiar, naturally occurring emulsion is whole milk, the inner phase of which consists of globules of butterfat; the external phase is a watery solution of casein, sugar, and other substances. Another natural emulsion is egg yolk, which consists of egg oil in an aqueous solution containing, among other substances, albumen and lecithin; the latter is a lipoid (fatlike) substance that is one of nature's most efficient emulsifying agents. Albumen, also, is a good emulsifier. Milk and egg yolk are oil in water emulsions. A second type of emulsion is that of water in oil, in which the phases are reversed. An example of this type of emulsion is butter, which has aqueous constituents dispersed in tiny globules throughout the butterfat. Most manufactured emulsions are made by combining the oily ingredient with a colloidal solution, such as casein or albumen; these are not only good emulsifiers, but also confer desirable properties when the emulsion is used as an adhesive. Emulsions are generally opaque or milky because of the refraction and dispersion of light by the minute droplets, but when dry they become transparent, or nearly so. In addition to their use in paper and leather manufacture, emulsions are used in edge gilding, gold tooling, and other bookbinding operations. (233, 235)
enamel
1. An opaque or semi-opaque vitreous composition applied by fusion to the surface of a metal or other substance for purposes of ornamentation and/or protection. See also: CHAMPLEVÉ BINDINGS; CLOISONNÉ BINDINGS. 2. A term applied to a coated paper or to the coating material on a paper.
enamelled
Originally, a supercalendered printing paper coated on both sides with a pigment such as satin white or blanc fixe; today, enamelled is considered to be any coated paper. (17)
enamelled bindings
See: CHAMPLEVÉ BINDINGS; CLOISONNÉ BINDINGS.
enamelled hide
A vegetable tanned cowhide with a flexible, water repellent, multi-layered coating on the grain side, built up in a manner somewhat similar to that used for patent leather, and given a grain pattern by means of embossing. At one time enamelled hide was a cowhide tanned with bark and finished with a mixture of Prussian blue (ferric ferrocyanide (KFe(Fe(N6))) and linseed oil, dried in an oven and grained. (61, 351)
enamelled seal
Originally, a Greenland sealskin, tanned with bark or sumac, and treated with a mixture of Prussian blue (ferric ferrocyanide (KFe(Fe(N6))) and linseed oil, and dried in an oven at high temperature. Today the term refers to an imitation sealskin. See: ENAMELLED HIDE. (61)
enclosures
Materials left or placed in a book, either accidently or deliberately, and which, unless removed, may cause damage to the paper, binding, or equipment used in binding, or which may be bound into the volume. Such items include paper clips, bookmarks, cataloging and/or binding instructions, rubber bands, newspaper clippings, leaves, flowers, letters, and the like. (173)
end board
See: LOWER COVER.
end leaf
See: FLY LEAF.
end-leaf paper
A paper manufacturer's term for the white or colored sheets of cotton fiber and/or chemical wood pulp paper in basis weights of 50 to 80 pounds (25 X 38—500), used for the ENDPAPERS of books. It should have sufficient strength to withstand tearing, especially at the joint, high folding strength, resistance to penetration by adhesives, and a pH between 6.5 and 8.5. The sheets are often printed with ornamental patterns and special or significant designs, e.g., library motifs. (17)
end lining
See: PASTEDOWN.
endpapering machine
An edition binding machine that glues sheets of paper folded once only to the first and last sections of a book.
endpapers
See illustration The units of two or more leaves placed in the front and back of a book between its covers and text block. In rare instances the endpaper may consist of a single leaf. The endpaper at the front of the book is called the front endpaper, while the one at the back is called the off endpaper, or back endpaper. The leaf nearest the cover (after the WASTE SHEET (1), if any, is removed) is called the PASTEDOWN, or board paper, and, along with the recto of the leaf facing it, may be colored, marbled, ornamented; printed with maps, illustrations, scenes from the book, the motif of the library, etc.; or left blank. The leaf or leaves that are not pasted to the board are sometimes referred to as fly leaves, fly sheets, free fly leaves, or waste sheets. In hand binding the basic purpose of the endpapers is to take up the strain of opening the covers of the book, which would otherwise be on the first and last sections or leaves. This is of particular importance in the case of the upper cover and first section or leaf. The endpapers (specifically the pastedowns) cover the raw edges of the covering material where it is turned over the boards, as well as the inside surfaces of the boards themselves. The free fly leaves protect the first and last printed leaves of the book. In addition, the board papers and fly leaves next to them have long provided a medium for decoration. See: DOUBLURE (1). In library and edition binding, particularly the latter, the endpapers perform the crucial function of holding the text block in its covers, or case. In many instances, only the endpapers hold the book and case together. In library binding, on the other hand, where the spine-lining material is considerably more substantial than that used in edition binding, the lining assists considerably in this function. The paper used for endpapers is of considerable importance—not only the quality of the paper but also the manner in which it is used. Its pH should not be less than that of the paper making up the book, and preferably higher, but it should not, in any case, be less than 6.5 or more than 8.5. The BASIS WEIGHT of the paper should be sufficient so that when the adhesive is applied, the moisture will not cause the paper to cockle, as cockling causes problems when the book is later cased-in. Furthermore, thin paper will swell excessively when moist, and then when it dries will shrink and warp the covers. There is also the danger that the adhesive will strike through and cause the board papers and adjacent leaves to stick together. The grain or machine direction of the endpapers should be parallel to the binding margin of the book; otherwise difficulty will be experienced in casing-in. When the grain of the paper is at right angles to the binding margin, the expansion of the paper is lengthwise, and, because one edge is secured to the text block (either sewn or tipped to it), that edge cannot expand; consequently the paper will buckle along it. If the book is cased and then pressed, these buckled areas will cause unsightly wrinkles on the board papers. When colored endpapers are used, they should be made with fast colors so that the moisture of the adhesive will not cause the colors to offset onto the leaves of the book. When endpapers are lithographed or printed with maps or illustrations, they, too, should be printed with an ink that will not offset. (It should be noted that when a book with map, or otherwise pertinent endpapers, must be rebound, the endpapers must be carefully removed and rebound with the book, as they generally cannot be reused as endpapers; this step is expensive, and doubly so when the front and off papers are different, which requires that both be retained.) Marbled endpapers were at one time used extensively, but today their use is confined almost entirely to a limited number of books bound by hand. If marbled paper is used, the same precautions as to grain direction and color fastness should be observed. The most commonly used style of endpaper construction, at least in edition binding, consists of nothing more than folded sheets tipped to the front and back of the text block. This structure is not altogether unsatisfactory if the book is to receive careful and little use, but it is entirely unsatisfactory for a book that is to be consulted frequently. Since the endpaper is attached to the text block only by a thin line of adhesive, it pulls loose easily leaving only a flimsy spine lining fabric made of crash or gauze holding the case to the book. There is no reinforcement of the joint; consequently, the board paper splits because of the constant bending as the book is opened and closed. These difficulties can be overcome to a certain extent by the use of a cloth joint. Occasionally the tipped-on endpapers are also sewn to the text block, as though they were additional sections. This however, just weakens them even further, because the sewing thread passes through only one layer of paper, resulting, in addition to the normal strain, in a cutting effect of the thread. Cloth-jointed endpapers may have either concealed or exposed joints. With the concealed joint, the fold of the endpaper is reinforced by a strip of cloth which is attached on the side of the paper next to the text block and the board so that it extends about an inch onto the board paper, thus masking the cloth. The additional stiffness in the joint helps to retain its shape, but it also creates a pull on the first few leaves of the first section because it makes the cover more difficult to open. Separate leaves of paper are used for the board paper and fly leaf in constructing the endpaper having an exposed joint. They are connected by means of a cloth strip which is visible in the joint. In edition binding, these endpapers are made on a stripping machine, and the reinforcing cloth is generally a thin, smoothly finished muslin. In library binding, on the other hand, where the visible cloth joint is used frequently in adhesive binding, the cloth joint usually consists of a strong, durable (cambric) linen. Cloth-jointed endpapers are attached to the text block in several ways. The simplest is to tip them on, which is a weak method. When the papers have a concealed joint, the folded sheet is tipped to the section and the reinforcement is folded around the endpaper and section. The cloth joint is sewn to the text block along with the section. Another method consists of sewing the cloth joint to the section. The cloth is then folded back and glued over the sewing. The endpaper is tipped on, and the cloth is carried over the endpaper and glued down. Unless the book paper is quite flexible, however, this technique will cause the end sections to open as units rather than as individual leaves. The Library Binding Institute has promulgated standards pertaining to the construction of endpapers to be used in library binding. The endpaper consists of three fundamental parts: a pasted-down or outward endleaf which becomes the pastedown, at least two free flyleaves, and a reinforcing fabric. For monographs and ordinary periodicals, the paper used in the construction of endpaper must have a basis weight of 60 pounds (24 X 26— 500) and must meet the following requirements: Folding Tensile Tearing Endurance Strength Strength (M.I.T.)* (Testing Machines, Inc.) (Elmendorf) Number of Pounds per Pounds per folds 1 inch strip 1 inch strip With the grain** 200 40 140 Across the grain 275 25 144 * Massachusetts Institute of Technology ** In the direction in which the majority of the fibers of a machine-made paper are oriented. During the first several centuries of the codex, endpapers consisted of little more than two or four leaves of vellum folded and sewn along with the sections of the book. When paper became the common material for book production, it then became necessary to reinforce the folds of the endpapers. A common type of endpaper, used in the first part of the 16th century, consisted of a fold of white paper employing a strip of vellum for reinforcement. The use of printer's waste for the fly leaves of endpapers was not uncommon during the 16th century. The practice of reinforcing endpapers began to decline at the end of the 16th century, particularly in commercial binding, partly because there were more small books (where it was thought that reinforcement was not of great importance), and also because it became more and more difficult to obtain waste vellum in sufficient quantities, due to the increase production of books. When bindings were to have plain white endpapers, it was a common practice to sew on four leaves at each end of the text block. The two outer leaves of each endpaper were often pasted together to create a stronger pastedown, while the two inner leaves were sometimes pasted together to create the "made" flyleaf, commonly associated with marbled or colored endpapers. The doubling of the board papers was done well before the coming of machine-made paper. This practice however, became more important when machine-made paper became prevalent, mainly because early machine-made paper tended to be relatively thin, and therefore weak. All of these techniques died out in the 1830s, after which time the more convenient procedure of making up the endpapers separately from the book became prevalent. Concurrently, it became the usual practice to simply tip the endpapers to the sections instead of sewing them, not only in regular commercial binding but also even in the best leather work. A widely used method of endpaper construction in the 19th century consisted of pasting a folded white to a folded colored sheet, which was then folded around the free colored sheet to make a waste sheet. A white flyleaf was then tipped on followed by the made endpaper. Another 19th century technique consisted of tipping a folded white sheet to the text block and inserting the white and colored made-up leaves inside up to the fold. This provided a waste sheet, a colored board paper, a "made" leaf which opened all the way back to the fold, and eliminated the drag of the previous endpaper, and the two flyleaves. A variation of this technique used today consists of pasting the colored and white sheets together, tipping a folded white sheet to the remaining white sheet, and then swinging one of the white sheets around the assembly to serve as a waste sheet. Cloth-joined endpapers were used as early as the 1840s but were generally not sewn in until this century. When they were sewn, the usual method was to overcast them to the first and last sections before sewing the book. Inner joints of leather were used occasionally in Europe as long ago as the 17th century, especially in France, but it was not until the second half of the 18th century that they became relatively common in the best English morocco and Russia leather bindings. The joints of this period, few of which were sewn in, were frequently used with much wider turn-ins than would be considered appropriate today, and were usually heavily decorated with fillets and rolls, as well as small tools. Watered silk endpapers were used frequently in fine leather binding during the second half of the 19th century and up to World War 11, but are seldom used today. Watered silk has always been used in conjunction with leather joints. See: DRUMMING ON. See also: LIBRARY STYLE ENDPAPER; MADE ENDPAPER; ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER. (13, 69, 209, 217, 236, 335, 343)
end sheet
See: PASTEDOWN, engine sized. See: BEATER SIZED.
en gist
See: BRADEL BINDING,
English fibreboard
An English equivalent for that called PASTEBOARD (1) in the United States. It is suitable for small or medium-sized books; however, it has a tendency to warp if too thin a sheet is used for the covers of a large book. (204)
English linen
A highly polished linen cloth of considerable strength and durability; it is reasonably permanent if not handled excessively. Also called "legal buckram." See also: LAW BUCKRAM.
English opacity paper
A paper used where a lightweight paper of good opacity is required. It is made from chemical wood pulp and fillers that afford maximum opacity, and usually contains mechanical wood pulp. It has a smooth machine or English finish, and is produced in basis weights ranging from 25 to 45 poUnds (25 X 38—500). (17)
engraved bindings
engraved silver silver bindings
Book covers decorated with engraved precious metals, usually portraying some Biblical or other religious scene and frequently further adorned with flowers, etc. The medieval custom of enclosing important liturgical works to be used at the alter in covers of precious metals died out in Western Europe during the Renaissance, in favor of richly embroidered velvet and (later) gold-tooled leather bindings. The fashion for silver or filigree, or even enamelled gold covers, however, continued with devotional books for personal use through the 18th century, especially in German-speaking countries, Italy, and Spain. (347)
engraving
1. The art or process of producing letters or designs on wood, metal, or other substances, by means of cutting or etching, for the purpose of printing or blocking by an intaglio process on paper or other material. 2. An engraved plate, or the impression made from such a plate. 3. An engraved inscription. 4. The process of taking an impression from an engraved plate.
entrelacs
A method of decorating borders by means of curving garlands and leaves. Their source is Muslim arabesques, with early printed specimens adorning the Historia Romana of Appianus, printed by Erhard Ratdolt of Augsburg in 1477. In their use in book decoration, entrelacs have been used by most French gilders since the 16th century. See also: COTTAGE STYLE; FANFARE STYLE. (140)
environment
The surrounding conditions or forces that influence or change books or other archival materials, and which include: 1) the entire climatic and biotic factors that act upon materials and ultimately determine their permanence, or lack of it; or 2) the aggregate of use, misuse, or nonuse that influence the permanence of materials. See also: DURABILITY; PERMANENT MATERIALS. (148)
enzyme
A class of complex organic substances that are capable of acting outside of living organisms and can accelerate or catalyze specific chemical transformations, such as the formation of bloom on leather, the tanning of leather (see: BATING), and the modification of native starches in sizing processes. The rate of an enzymatic reaction depends upon the temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and the presence of activators, co-enzymes, and enzyme inhibitors. The reactions of enzymes usually accelerate with an increase of temperature; however, since enzymes are proteins and are denatured at elevated temperatures, reaction rates increase only to the point where denaturation overcomes the accelerating effect of increasing temperature. Enzymes exert their influence by combining with the substrate to form an enzyme-substrate complex, which then decomposes to give the products and release the enzyme for further action. Because of this, the rate at which enzyme products are formed depends both on the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex and the rate of its decomposition. The formation of the complex depends on mass action between the enzyme and the substrate; therefore, taking a given quantity of an enzyme, the complex increases with the quantity sufficient to convert nearly all the enzyme into the complex. (72, 195, 306, 363)
epidermis
A protective, hard-wearing layer of keratinous cells, which, although of varying thickness over the body of the animal, is very thin compared with the underlying DERMIS. It consists of a continuous mass of cells usually differentiated into the following regions: Stratum corneum, or the uppermost layer, containing dry, dead cells, flattened to form a relatively continuous thin outer membrane skin that is highly cornified or keratinized; Stratum lucidum, which is the region where dying cells are located, and which contain an oily substance that renders them translucent; Stratum granulosum, in which the cells contain large granules; Stratum spinosum, where the cells show marked spines or bridges between each other; Stratum basale, where the cells contain living basal cells called keratinocytes and melanocytes; and the lowest region, the epidermal-dermal junction (often called the basement membrane), which consists of a thin zone of ground substance, containing no fibers, lying between the basal cells and the dermal surface. The epidermal-dermal layer has little resistance to bacteria and enzymes, and is easily attacked by them, as in enzyme UNHAIRING. It is also easily disintegrated by alkalis, such as caustic soda, sodium sulfide, etc., which is the basis of common commercial unhairing processes. The term derives from the Greek "epi" (upon) and "dermis," which had its origins in the Greek "derin" (to flay). See also: LIMING (248, 291, 306, 363)
epithelial tissue
The cellular tissue that covers all free surfaces within and without an animal's body, and, in the case of skin, is called epidermal tissue. The epithelial tissue affords covering and general protection against light, water and other fluids, bacteria, etc. (363)
epoxy resins
A class of resins produced by the polymerization of epichlorohydrin with diphenylolpropane, and manufactured from phenol and acetone. A range of resins of widely differing molecular weights, e.g., 400 to 6,000, can be produced by varying the proportions of reactants, as well as reaction conditions. Epoxy resins possess exceptional chemical resistance and adhesion. They are usually supplied in two parts, which must be mixed before use. Such resins have limited use equivalent weight in conservation work; however, they are useful where exceptional strength is required, such as in corner rebuilding and box making. (235, 309)
equivalent weight
1. The weight of a particular paper of any size expressed in terms of some other size. Equivalent weights are in direct proportion to the areas of single sheets. If the weight of a given size of paper is known, the equivalent weight of the paper of a different size can be calculated by multiplying the known weight of the paper by the area of the paper required and dividing by the known area of the paper: Weight of paper of which Area of paper of which size and weight are known X weight is required ------------------------------------------------- = equivalent weight Area of paper of known weight Thus, the weight of a ream of paper 5 x 40 inches in the substance of 30 to 40 inches, 60 pounds per 500 sheets is: 60 X (25 X 40) ----------- (30 x 40) = 50 pounds/500 sheets, 25 x 40 inches. 2. In chemistry, equivalent weight is one of the comparative weights of different compounds, elements, or radicals which possess the same chemical value for reaction when compared by reference to the same standard (usually oxygen, i.e., 8). Parallel lines also outline a center panel. All of the lines, both horizontal and vertical, cross near the extreme ends forming squares at the corners of the covers. The central panel is usually decorated with a pattern made up of small, almost touching, tools, and both borders are similarly decorated with a succession of tools; those of the broad inner one often are interrupted with a scroll bearing the name of the bookbinder. Many bookbinders of the latter half of the 15th century produced these so-called Erfurt bindings, including CONRADUS DE ARGENTINA and JOHANNES FOGEL. (141) In an acid, the equivalent weight is the quantity which would yield one gram ionic weight of hydrogen ion (1.008 g.), while in a base, it is the quantity which would yield one gram ionic weight of hydroxyl ion (17.008 g.). Thus an equivalent weight of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is one-half the molecular weight, and an equivalent of aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3) would be one-third the molecular weight. (17, 58, 139, 195)
erasability
That property of a material relating to the ease with which writing or printing can be removed by means of mechanical abrasion, the smoothness and cleanliness of the erased surface, and the reusability of the erased surface. (17)
Erfurt bindings
A university town in Central Germany. the name of which was applied to 18th century bindings featuring a scheme of decoration in which the entire cover is divided by a double border which encloses a long, narrow panel. The outer border is narrow, with a broad inner border separated from it by several parallel lines.
errata
erratum
Errors or omissions in writing or printing, generally restricted to typographical errors, but sometimes including imperfections in either presswork or binding. They are usually printed on a separate slip or leaf and placed among the preliminaries, or added to an existing page of type at the beginning or end of the book. Errata sheets must frequently be tipped in by the library or the binder. (69)
esparto grass
A coarse grass, native to Southern Spain and Northern Africa, obtained from two species, Lygeum spartum and Stipa tenacissima, and used in the manufacture of paper. Esparto fibers have thick walls and are short, normally less than 3 mm in length, with an average length of 1.5 mm. The fiber diameter varies from about 0.005 to 0.015 mm, with an average of about 0.012 mm, giving a length to diameter ratio of 125 : 1. The fibers also tend to be curved. One of the principal characteristics of esparto is its hairs, which are located on the inner surface of the leaf. Looking something like commas, they are commonly referred to as "comma hairs." They are also called tooth cells since they also somewhat resemble teeth. In addition to the hairs, small cells with serrated edges, appearing something like miniature concertinas, are present. Both hairs and cells have a length of less than about 0.06 mm. The best grade of esparto grass is known as Spanish, while the cheaper grade (from Africa) is called Tripoli. Introduced in England in 1850 by T. Routledge, esparto is used extensively in Great Britain, but is seldom employed in the United States, mainly because of the cost of transporting the grass or pulp made from it. In England, it is employed principally in the production of better grades of book paper. The presence of esparto in paper is determined by the iodine-zinc chloride test, which stains deep violet, or by boiling the specimen in a 1% solution of aniline sulfate, which turns the paper pink in the presence of the grass. Also called "alfa grass," "halfa grass," and "Spanish grass." See also: ESPARTO PAPER, (17, 143, 198)
esparto paper
A paper produced from ESPARTO (GRASS) pulp, usually in a mixture with a relatively small amount of chemical wood pulp. Esparto is generally used in the manufacture of better grades of printing papers (those containing 90 to 95% esparto, the balance being chemical wood). Esparto helps provide better formation and a good bulk for a given basis weight. The paper takes ink readily, presents minimum problems with regard to shrinkage and stretch, has excellent folding properties, and does not tend to dust or fluff during printing. Its major shortcoming is its low strength, which is due to its relatively short fiber length. (17, 143)
esparto wax
A yellowish-white WAX obtained from waste liquors in the preparation of ESPARTO (GRASS) pulp.
essential oil
A naturally occurring volatile liquid, formed in various parts of plant life, principally in the leaves, flowers, or fruit. The main constituents are the terpines, i.e., hydrocarbons which generally have the empirical formula C10H16, and their derivatives. They also contain alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, as well as compounds containing nitrogen and sulfur. Essential oils are volatile in steam, have characteristic odors, and leave no oily marks on paper. They are virtually insoluble in water but are soluble in alcohol and ether. Many are susceptible to oxidation in the presence of air or oxygen. They are obtained by steam distillation or by extraction.
esters
Organic compounds formed by the union of an acid and an alcohol (or a phenol) with the elimination of water, and which during HYDROLYSIS break down to these component parts. An ester may also be regarded simply as an organic acid. Esters may be specified either by constituents (e.g., ethyl silicate may be considered to be the silicone ester or ethyl alcohol), or by the ethyl ester or silicic acid. Esters are sometimes used to remove fat and grease stains from paper, and, less frequently, to inhibit bookworms. (233, 235)
ether
A colorless liquid ((CH5)2O), with a pleasant, characteristic odor. It is highly volatile and its vapor, which is strongly narcotic, forms an explosive mixture with air. It is soluble in water to 7%. soluble in strong sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, and miscible with many organic solvents. Ether is manufactured by passing alcohol vapor into a mixture of 92% alcohol and 67% sulfuric acid at 128 C. It may also be produced as a byproduct in the manufacture of alcohol and ethylene. It is used as a solvent.
ethyl acetate
A colorless, volatile, highly flammable liquid ester (CH3CO2C2H5), prepared from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid. It is used as a solvent and is not dangerously toxic if handled properly. (54, 235)
ethylene dichloride
A colorless, toxic liquid (C2H4Cl2), with an odor much like that of chloroform. It is prepared by the vapor- or liquid-phase reaction of ethylene and chlorine in the presence of a suitable catalyst. It finds some use as a solvent and is employed in the manufacture of vinyl chloride and in the fumigation of books.
Etruscan calf
Etruscan style
A method of decorating calfskin bindings by acid staining, so called because of the contrasting colors or shades of leather (light brown or terra cotta) in conjunction with dark brown or black tooling. The terra cotta shades and decoration represent Greek and Etruscan vases. Etruscan bindings usually have a rectangular panel on each cover, or, occasionally, a plain oval with a classical urn in the center. They are tooled in black, surrounded by a border of Greek palmate leaves, which are also in black. and with outer borders of classical design (Grecian key or Doric entablature) tooled in gold. The spines are also decorated with classical ornaments. Many 19th century authorities attributed this style to John Whitaker: however, it seems more likely that it was the creation of William EDWARDS OF HALIFAX. There appears to be no very conclusive evidence as to the origin of the style, but it is known that Edwards employed it at an early date, circa 1785. It was popular during the period 1785-1820. (69, 94, 97, 158, 280)
Eucalyptus
A tree of the genus Eucalyptus, which has some 600 or more species, including many with bark rich in tannin. It is believed that only in Australia (to which the trees are indigenous) has the bark been exploited on a large scale, and then entirely from trees growing in the wild. One particular bark, called Mallet (maletto) bark, obtained from Eucalyptus astringens, is actually one of the world's richest tannin-containing barks, having a tannin content that is often well over 40%, and even as high as 52 to 55. Another tree, mugga, or red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), which is also grown commercially in Morocco, has bark containing 30 to as much as 45% tannin. While the tanning properties of eucalyptus are good, the tannin tends to produce leather that is too darkish red in color. In addition, Mallet bark is low in soluble non-tans (8%) and therefore must be mixed with other tannins or acids to induce swelling or good plumping; mugga tannin fixes slowly giving a leather that is too soft and also dark red in color. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
Ève style
È bindings
A style of decoration executed by the French bookbinders, Nicholas Eve (fl 1578-1582). and his son or nephew, Clovis (fl 1584-1635). They were the Court binders and booksellers to Henri III, Henri IV, and Louis XIII during the period in which they flourished. Typical designs of their bindings included a field powdered with fleur-de-lis, and, occasionally, a center piece of the Crucifixion on the Royal Arms, and, while many bindings in the FANFARE STYLE have been attributed to them, for only a few extant fanfares can this be said with certainty. The Eves were among the first bookbinders to conceive the pattern on the covers and spine as an integrated unit. Only three extant bindings are known to be their work. All three are powdered with fleurs-de-lis. (132, 140, 154, 169)
exceptional volume
A term used by the Library Binding Institute to indicate types of books—such as music scores, certain art books, periodicals with narrow binding margins or stiff paper— which require good openability. The Institute specifies that such volumes should be sewn through the folds: when such sewing is used, any weak folds are to be reinforced with bond paper (which is too heavy for this type of guarding): loose leaves are to be hinged, and the sewing done on tapes or (sawn-in) cords. The term applies only to library binding. (209)
excitation purity
A colorimetric quantity used in designating depth of color.
expandable cloth
A type of cloth woven with a crinkled cross-thread and used for lining the spines of books, usually in edition binding. The cloth expands with the spine during rounding and backing. See also: STEAMSET. (140)
expanding medium
See: MARBLING SIZE.
expansion
A change in the dimensions of a sheet or strip of paper or board resulting from atmospheric changes. See also: HYGROEXPANSIVITY.
extended
1. An addition to the inner or binding margin of a leaf of a book. This procedure is more often required for title leaves, plates, the last leaves of a book, etc., than elsewhere, as these are most likely to become detached, frayed, or otherwise damaged. Occasionally, however, if a book has to be made up from a narrower copy, the narrow leaves may be extended so that their outer edges are even with the other leaves. 2. See: EXTRA-ILLUSTRATED. (69)
extended cover
extension cover
A term used in pamphlet binding to indicate covers which extend beyond the trimmed edges of the leaves, as distinguished from CUT FLUSH. See also: SQUARES; YAPP STYLE.
extender
1. In the adhesive industry, a substance, usually one of some adhesive capability, which is mixed into an adhesive in order to increase the amount of the adhesive, and also at times to reduce CRAZING (1). 2. A transparent or semi-transparent chemical added in powder form to a printing ink, either to alter the strength of its color or to improve working properties. (140, 309)
extensibility
The extent to which a material, e.g., rubber, leather, etc., can be stretched without breaking. See also: STRETCH. (17)
extension tabs
The leather. cloth or paper tabs made to extend from the fore edges of the leaves of books. usually for indexing purposes. See also: INDEX TAB. (264)
extra account-book binding
An English expression for a particular style of BLANKBOOK BINDING distinguished by an overall superior binding structure, including the taping of six sections at front and back, sewing by hand on webbings, made endpapers with leather joints, marbled edges, a calfskin or cowhide lining, a drawn-on SPRING-BACK (1) of millboard. split boards. and a calfskin or cowhide covering, with Russia bands. See also: BANDING; STATIONERY BINDING. (343)
extra binder
A somewhat archaic term for a craftsman who uses the best materials available and employs only techniques of forwarding known to be sound. An extra binder often decorates his bindings with a design created specifically for the particular book. (156)
extra binding
A term originally applied to the binding of books in full leather, usually morocco, in which the best materials and workmanship were used throughout. The term also implied extra care in finishing and extensive use of gold tooling. Today the term is used more loosely and is applied to a book or small lot of books bound with some special care, with attention not only to utility but to beauty of design and workmanship. (69, 94, 320, 343)
extra calf
An obsolete term applied to a book covered in a better grade of calfskin in lieu of morocco.
extra check binding
An obsolete term applied to a style of binding in which the leaves were wire-stitched or stabbed and bound in full canvas or cloth, or quarter-bound in leather with cloth sides. (264)
extra cloth
An obsolete term for a superior grade of book cloth, made of a base of cotton, starch-filled on the reverse side and color-filled rather than dyed. It was made in both a plain finish and in a variety of patterns, the heavy color coating concealing the weave of the fabric and giving a solid color effect. See also: BUCKRAM, (140)
extracted bone glue
See: BONE GLUE.
extra gilt
A term sometimes applied to elaborate gold tooling on the spine and covers of a leather binding.
extra high bulk book paper
A book paper which, in a basis weight of 45 pounds (25 X 38 — 500), bulks 344 pages or fewer to the inch under a pressure of 35 pounds per square inch. (17)
extra-illustrated
A book illustrated by means of engravings, variant title pages, and the like, which were not included in the book by the publisher, but added later. This additional matter may consist of original drawings, manuscripts, etc., but it may also consist of leaves taken from other books. The added material may be mounted, inlaid, or trimmed to conform to the size of the other leaves of the book. Also called "Grangerized" (a term derived from the vogue begun by the publication of James Granger's Biographical history of England, in 1769, in which Granger had blank leaves included so that the owner could insert desired illustrations). (69)
Extra thick
A term used by library binders to indicate a book greater than a stated specified thickness, usually 2 1/2 inches. The significance of the term is that library binders generally impose an additional charge for each inch or fraction thereof in excess of the prescribed "normal" thickness.
extra time
An hourly charge imposed by a binder or bindery, in the latter example, usually a library binder, for excessive repairs, mending, guarding, scoring, etc., beyond the extent considered "normal" for the average book. "Extra time" would normally apply to operations involved in sewing a book through the folds instead of oversewing. It may also apply to the repair and/or cleaning of water- or smoke-damaged books, or other unusual and/ or time consuming work. "Extra time" is not meant to be applied in cases of regular work involved in library binding, e.g., collating.
eyelet
A fastener, made of plastic or metal, and used on looseleaf papers, stiff covers, etc. to protect apertures from tearing o ut where cords, thongs, or fasteners are inserted.
eyelet crusher
A hand-operated, pliers-like device used for fastening a reinforcing grommet in an eyelet.
eyelet punch
A punch and die used to make eyelets in cloth, leather or paper, generally for hanging purposes.
eyeletting
The process of reinforcing punched holes with plastic or metal grommets. This work is generally done by firms specializing in calendar work, and the like.
f
Abbreviation for feint, which, when applied to ruling, signifies feint ruling, i.e., the fine, pale horizontal lines ruled on a sheet of blankbook paper by means of a ruling machine; vertical feint lines would be indicated by d. & f. (q.v.), or downs and feints. (274)
fabric
See: BOOK CLOTH; CLOTH.
fabric bindings
A general term occasionally applied to a binding having a covering material consisting mainly of cloth. Specifically, the term refers to EMBROIDERED BINDINGS.
fabric book cloth
A term sometimes applied to a BOOK CLOTH that has had its reverse side surfaced with a soy-bean starch, and which is not calendered. The starch prevents adhesive penetration, while at the same time preserving the natural texture of the fabric.
fabrikoid
The trade name for a type of pyroxylin-coated BOOK CLOTH, although it is also at times used in a general sense. In the early period of its use, it was often referred to as IMITATION LEATHER. (196, 264)
face
1. That part of a cowhide, between the ears and eyes to the nose, excluding the cheeks. It is of no use in bookbinding, and is actually generally removed before tanning. It is used in the manufacture of glue. 2. That part of a type character that appears in relief on the printing end of the type and which produces the impression in printing, blocking, etc. 3. The printing surface of a plate. 4. A particular design or style of a font of type. See also: TYPE FACE. (139, 156, 363)
faced
A method of folding used for books made up of DUPLEX (1) paper, in which the sheets are folded in such a manner that the same shades face each other throughout the volume. It is a term used mainly with reference to the binding of blankbooks, which are frequently made up of duplex papers. (159)
faced cloth
A cloth that is finished (coated and glazed) on one side only. As only one side of the cloth used in covering books is visible when on the book, most book cloths are "faced," in distinction to those in which the cloths are finished on both sides. (261)
facsimile binding
A bookbinding which closely resembles a binding style of previous times. See also: CONTEMPORARY BINDING. (2)
facsimile leaf
A leaf (or leaves) prepared so as to closely imitate and replace that missing from a book, usually an older and generally valuable book.
facsimilist
One who restores a book or binding in such a manner that it retains its contemporary appearance. See also: CONTEMPORARY BINDING.
fadeometer
An accelerated aging testing device which exposes samples of colored materials or coatings to a carbon arc to determine their resistance to fading. The arc emits an intense actinic light which in a matter of hours approximates the destructive effect of a much longer period of ordinary daylight. Although it does not exactly duplicate the effect of prolonged exposure to natural light, it is still an effective indicator of the degree of light stability that can be expected of a material, and of the comparative resistance to fading of a number of samples. See also: ACCELERATED AGING TEST. (72, 233)
fading
The gradual loss of color of a pigment or dye that is chemically unstable. Unstable dyes or pigments become colorless (or at least less highly colored) compounds when they undergo chemical reactions upon exposure to the ultraviolet radiations of natural light, and to the oxygen, moisture, and other elements of the atmosphere. Dyes and pigments subject to these reactions are generally referred to as FUGITIVE COLORS. There is no known way of preventing the fading of unstable colors. (143, 233)
fair agate
A marble pattern consisting principally of black in small widely spaced spots, supplemented by large drops produced by sprinkling potash on the marbling size. (153)
fair calf
See: LAW CALF.
fall in
The condition of a book in which the spine has collapsed inward after some use, usually because of inadequate or improper rounding, backing, lining of the spine, or combinations thereof. (335)
false back
A somewhat misleading term applied to a HOLLOW BACK. (115)
false bands
The imitation raised cords (bands) found on some books. They consist of narrow strips of leather (or other material, e.g., vellum) attached directly to the hollow of the cover, or in the case of a tight back binding, directly to the spine of the book. The false bands stand out in imitation of a book sewn on raised cords. In England, they were introduced as early as the 17th century. Cf: HUBS. See also: FLEXIBLE SEWING. (140, 172, 335)
fancy Dutch marble
A modification of the WAVE MARBLE, consisting of red, black, and any one of a variety of shades of blue. The red is dropped on first, followed by the black in the same proportion but somewhat thicker, and with more ox gall so that it spreads and produces larger spots. The blue is made still thicker so that with still more gall it spreads even more than the black. The surface is finished with more gall and water, which must be spread more than any of the colors. The surface of the size is then raked as for the "wave," and the design is finished with a double comb. (159)
fancy hand tools
See: UNIT TOOLS.
fancy marble
An edge marble produced by spreading a finely ground vegetable coloring matter mixed with spirits of wine (a solution of 90% ethyl alcohol in water). The alcohol causes the coloring matter to spread in a diversity of forms, which are then transferred to the edges of the book. (241)
fanfare style
An elaborate style of decoration consisting generally of geometrically formed compartments of varying sizes, each bounded by a ribbon consisting of a single fillet on one side and a double fillet on the other, each of which, with the exception of the center compartment (which is larger or otherwise distinguished), being filled with leafy spirals, branches of laurel, and other sprays, floral tools, rare in the last fifty years or so. See and the like. Fanfare was a rich and luxurious style and called for the greatest skill on the part of the bookbinder. It was imitated, with varying degrees of fidelity, throughout Europe from about 1570 until well into the 17th century, although its elements were largely imitative of previous styles of embellishment. Originally, the style was attributed exclusively to Nicholas and Clovis Ève, but it is more likely that a number of Parisian finishers executed many of these binding. The name "fanfare," which originated long after the style was first executed, derives from a binding of the 19th century binder, JOSEPH THOUVENIN, who revived the style on a volume he bound in 1829, Les Fanfares et Corvees abbadesques. See PLATE VI. (69, 158, 253)
fanning out
fan out fan over
The process of working out the ends of a pile of sheets for pasting, preparatory to tipping, or for counting, folding, etc. Also called "run out," or "running out." (274)
fan style
A style of decorating a book characteristic of Italian bindings of the 17th century, and also Scottish bindings of the 18th century (usually referred to as Scottish "wheel" bindings). In this style a design in the likeness of a fan is tooled on the covers of the book making a full circle in the center of the cover, and often quarter circles in the corners. It represents a development of center and cornerpiece bindings. See also: SCOTTISH STYLE. (156, 334)
fascicle
Sections of a work which, for various reasons, including the economics of publishing and the convenience of printing, are issued in installments. They are frequently incomplete in themselves and do not necessarily coincide with the formal divisions of the publication. They usually consist of sections, or groups of plates, protected by temporary (sometimes printed) wrappers, and may or may not be numbered or designated as part, fascicle, etc. They present binding problems, particularly in that they do not necessarily coincide with the divisions of the work, and they must either be bound as odd units or held until publication or printing has been completed. Publication in parts, or fascicles, began in England in the early 17th century, become common in the 18th century, and has become relatively also: PARTS OF A BOOK.
fast back
See: TIGHT BACK.
fast colors
Those colors which are resistant to the action of external influences, such as light, acids, alkalies, etc. In textile dyeing and other industrial processes, fast colors are those which will satisfactorily resist fading for the useful life of the product in which they are used. In book cloths, the term refers to nonfading over long exposure to artificial light,- but not to natural light. Also called "lightfast," and, inappropriately, "sunfast." See also: FADING; FUGITIVE COLORS. (17, 143, 233)
fatigue failure
The failure of a material, such as an adhesive or paper, resulting from a number of repetitions of load (or strain), e.g., folding or flexing, in distinction from CREEP, which is a deformation caused by the continuous application of load over an extended period of time. (17)
fatliquoring
The process of introducing oil into a skin following tannage but before the leather is dried. In fatliquoring, which is usually applied to light leathers, the oil is introduced into the leather in such a manner that the individual fibers of the skin are uniformly coated. The actual percentage of oil on the weight of the leather is relatively small, being about 3 to 10%. The principal function of fatliquoring is to influence the degree of fiber cohesion which takes place before drying. If there were no cohesion whatsoever, the skin would separate into its constituent fibrils, leaving no leather structure. On the other hand, if all the fibrils and fibers cohered, the skin would then take the form of a hard and horny material having no value as leather. Somewhere between these two extremes there is an ideal degree of cohesion for any given purpose for which the leather is to be used. The fatliquoring process probably acts to control the differential shrinkage of grain versus corium (dermis) of the leather during drying, thus playing an important role in controlling the degree of tightness of BREAK of the leather. In addition, it also influences the handle, drape, flexibility, durability, stretch, and water resistance of leather, and also adds greatly to its strength. These are factors of primary importance in leather used for covering books. Fatliquoring is usually carried out in a drum at the highest temperature practical for the type of leather, or about 45° C. for vegetable tanned leather and 60 to 65° C. for full chrome tanned leather. The skins are run in a drum for 30 to 40 minutes. After drumming, the leathers are usually struck out on the flesh side, carefully set out to smooth the grain, nailed or toggled out flat to dry, or paste dried. To allow a small amount of oil to be spread uniformly over the very large surface area of the leather fibers, it is necessary first to dilute the oil. Although this could be done by means of a solvent, e.g., benzine, it is more economical, safer, and more convenient to emulsify the oil. In an EMULSION with water, the oil is dispersed in microscopically small droplets. It is important that the drops of oil in the water remain as an emulsion until they penetrate the leather, and not separate out as large drops or as a layer of oil, which could not penetrate the leather fiber and result in merely a greasy surface layer. The properties of the finished leather can be varied by controlling the degree to which the emulsion penetrates before it "breaks," depositing the oil on the fibers. Relatively shallow penetration, which leaves the inner layers of the leather with comparatively little oil, gives a leather that has a tight break and is soft and resilient. On the other hand, if the oil is allowed to penetrate uniformly through the leather, the result will be a leather that is soft and stretchy, with any natural grain looseness accentuated. The liquors incorporated into the leather are called fatliquors, of which there are several types. One of the earliest was the soap fatliquor, consisting of neatsfoot oil and common soap. When a vegetable-tanned leather is drummed in such a fatliquor, the slight acidity of the tannage neutralized the soap, causing fine drops of oil to be deposited on the fibers. The greater the acidity of the leather, the more rapidly this occurs, so that the oil may be deposited before it has penetrated sufficiently. Consequently, soap fatliquors are described as having poor emulsion stability, and are generally used where a fairly heavy surface fatliquoring is required. It is possible, however, to modify many types of oils chemically so that they become miscible with water without the use of emulsifying agents. Sulfated oils are used frequently because they give good, fine-oil dispersions and are less sensitive to acid than soap fatliquors. This results in deeper penetration of the oils into the leather before they are deposited. Sulfated oils are prepared by treating fish, animal, or vegetable oils with sulfuric acid at a temperature of 10 to 20° C. The resultant product is washed with a strong brine solution to remove excess acid. The salt is necessary to prevent the sulfated oil from emulsifying with the water. Soda ash is then added to form the sodium salt of the sulfated oil and to neutralize the last traces of the acid. The more the oil is sulfated, which is to say, the more sulfuric acid that has been fixed, the greater will be its stability to acid and the more thorough its penetration into the leather. Conversely, the more acid the leather, the less the penetration. However, increasing the amount of sulfation or water miscibility, decreases the "oiliness" of the oil and therefore its lubricating powers. Sulfonated oils are prepared by a similar process, usually at a higher temperature; the fatliquor contains the sulfonic group which gives greater stability and emulsions which penetrate deeper into the leather under acid conditions. Still another method of obtaining emulsifying properties is to sulfite the oil. In this process, the oil is mixed well with a strong solution of sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3), while the mixture is thoroughly aerated by means of compressed air. Sulfited oils behave in a manner similar to sulfated oils, but are usually said to be more acid stable and to afford deeper lubrication. In addition to the emulsifying element of the fatliquor, a raw oil, such as mineral, castor, neatsfoot, cod or coconut oil is frequently included in the formulation. See also: CURRYING; STUFFING (2). (248, 275, 291, 306, 361, 363)
fats
The esters of fatty acids with glycerol. They are generally insoluble in water and are not very soluble in cold alcohol. They are soluble in hot alcohol, as well as ether, acetone, carbon disulfide, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, benzene, as well as other organic solvents. Fats may be hydrolized to glycerol and fatty acids by boiling them with acids and alkalies, by superheated steam, and by the action of certain enzymes, notably the lipases. When alkalies are used for hydrolysis, the fatty acids combine with the alkali to form soap; therefore, alkaline hydrolysis is sometimes referred to as saponification. Fats are used in the tannage of some leathers, in the FATLIQUORING of light leathers, in leather dressings, etc. See also: FAT TANNING; WAX.
fat tanning
A process of converting hides and skins into a stable, imputrecible material by means of treatments involving the incorporation of soft animal fats which undergo chemical changes while in contact with the fibers of the skin, leading to the fixation of fatty matter. See also: OIL TANNING. (61)
fatty acids
Monobasic acids which contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They consist of an alkyl radical attached to the carboxyl group, and when saturated have the general formula (C_nH_2nO_2) Formic and acetic acids are the two lowest members of this saturated series. Unsaturated fatty acids follow several series, including: 1) the oleic acid series (C_nH_2n-2O_2); 2) the linoleic acid series (C_nH_2n-4O_2); and 3) the linolenic acid series (C_nH_2n-6O_2). There are also other naturally occurring fatty acids that are found in nature mainly as glycerides, which constitute the most important part of the fats and oils, and as esters of other alcohols and the waxes.
faulty margin
An unequal margin, one generally resulting from imperfect REGISTER (3). Such a margin may result in part of the printed matter being obscured by oversewing, or cropped unintentionally during trimming. (156)
feather edge
The finely pared edge of a piece of leather, or a thin, rough edge, such as deckle edge. See also: EDGING (1). (256)
feathering
1. See: EDGING (1). 2. A printing fault seen as the spreading or feathering of the ink outside the printing area and generally along the direction in which the fibers lie. It may be a result of excess solvent in the ink, an unsuitable paper, or both. (156)
feather ornament
An engraved finishing tool resembling a feather. It is found mainly on clasps and catches, but also at times, in the form of a tool used in decorating leather bindings. (250)
feather stitch
An embroidery stitch consisting of a line of diagonal blanket stitches worked alternately to the left and right. (111)
featherweight
1. Papers which are extremely light in proportion to their bulk. Pure esparto papers are the bulkiest, but are difficult to handle, as they are soft and spongy. Paper of standard bulk or above is termed featherweight, while the same grade of paper under the standard bulk is called ANTIQUE BOOK PAPER. 2. A general term indicating lightweight book paper, thin opaque writing paper, etc. (17)
featherweight book paper
Paper used mainly for fiction, especially where bulkiness is desired for a given number of leaves. The standard basis weights range from 50 to 80 pounds (25 X 38—500). In England, such papers are made largely from ESPARTO (GRASS). Featherweight book papers are porous and difficult to handle. (17, 140)
feather work
A style of decoration, originally used on Irish bindings of the 18th century, emphasizing curved lines probably made with a gouge, which radiate outward from a central point producing a delicate and very rich featherlike pattern. (156)
feeder
An apparatus for feeding paper into a printing press, ruling machine or folding machine, gathered sections into a sewing machine, sewn books into a casing-in machine, etc. It may also be the device on automatically fed machines performing the same function. The first feeders moved the sheet forward and adjusted it, while the sheets in the pile were still separated by hand. From this early "semi-automatic" feeder, which still exists in numerous machines, particularly in library binding, the modern completely automatic feeders were developed. Three classes of automatic feeders are in general use: 1) the pile feeder, which operates by means of a jet of air which raises the sheet and brings it into contact with a suction wheel which moves it forward into the feed table. As the sheets feed off the top of the pile, the entire pile is raised to keep the top sheet always at the same level. Some pile feeders separate the sheets by means of push fingers that buckle up the corners of the paper and move it forward one sheet at a time; 2) the continuous feeder, which uses bands of webbing to carry the sheets which are previously fanned out and placed on the feeder. The bands carry the sheets around a roller and up to the feed wheels where a combing wheel advances the top sheet to a guide. At the correct moment, the guide drops and another wheel drops on the edge of the paper and carries it forward. Some continuous feeders use an air jet and suction wheel to advance the sheets; 3) the friction feeder, which operates in a manner similar to the continuous, expect that the sheets are not carried around a roller; in this case each new lift of paper must be slipped under the edge of the previous lift. (278, 320, 339)
feel
The qualities or properties of texture, finish, bulk, grain, smoothness, suppleness, stretchiness, softness, etc., of leather, paper, cloth, etc., as judged by the sense of touch. Although purely subjective in nature, "feel" is nonetheless one of the properties by which leather and paper are judged. (139, 248)
felt
1. The blanket of absorbent material, e.g., wool, placed between sheets of handmade paper that have just been removed from the mold. The purpose of the felt is to absorb water from the wet sheets. See also: COUCH (1, 2). 2. A continuous belt on a papermaking machine, generally made of wool, but also as a combination of wool, cotton, asbestos. and synthetic fibers. Felts perform the function of mechanical conveyors or transmission belts, provide a cushion between the press rolls, and serve as a medium for the removal of water from the wet web. 3. The blanket of a printing press used to soften the impression. 4. The inside lining found in some book boxes. 5. A cloth produced from matted fibers of wool, or wool and fur or hair, and made into a compact material by compression, usually while wet (17, 274)
felted
1. A term sometimes applied to the characteristic of firmness or solidity of a book that has been heavily pressed several times during the course of binding, thus compacting the leaves. 2. See: FELTING. (343)
felted fibers
A material used in the manufacture of hook-cloth substitutes, as a basis for imitation leathers, and in lieu of spine lining fabric in edition binding. It consists of synthetic fibers felted together into sheets and laminated to impart strength. One of these fiber-bonded fabrics is made from regenerated cellulose, the finished product being reasonably strong and durable. It is impregnated with appropriate fillers for use as a substitute for book cloth and leather. Untreated, the material is much cheaper than spine lining fabric and stronger than paper. Some edition binders use the parallel laid bonded fiber fabric to form the joint between the case and text block. As a book-covering material, this substitute is said to be easy to work and block, but most are aesthetically unappealing, lacking the texture and appearance of substance of cloth and buckram. They are decidedly inferior to leather in virtually every respect. They are marketed under a number of trade names. (81)
felting
The process of intermingling the fibers during the manufacture of paper, either on the wire of the machine, or on the mold when making paper by hand.
felt side
The side of a sheet of paper that has not been in contact with the Fourdrinier wire, and which therefore is the smooth side of the sheet rather than the WIRE SIDE. The felt side is considered to be the "top" of the sheet. (42, 365)
fence
1. The movable guide attachment of a card or board cutter that controls the location and extent of the cut. See also: BACK GAUGE. 2. The thin cards placed between the boards and fly leaves of a book to prevent marking by the turn-ins or tongue of the split boards when pressing, and also, in books having excessive swell after sewing, to facilitate smashing without "throwing out" the sections at the spine. See also: PRESSING TINS (2). 3. An endpaper of a blankbook. (145, 256, 276)
fenders
See: FENCE (2) ; PRESSING TINS (2).
Ferrar, Nicholas
1592-1637
One of the more interesting figures in the history of English bookbinding. Ferrar and his relative, John Collet (as well as Collet's wife and 14 children), and Ferrar's mother, established a semi-religious community called the English Protestant Nunnery, at Little Gidding, in Huntingdonshire, in about 1625. Ferrar employed a bookbinder, who taught the family the craft, as well as gilding and the so-called pasting-printing by means of a rolling press. The members of the community produced the remarkable "Harmonies" of the Scriptures, one of which was produced by Mary Collet for King Charles 1. Some of their bindings were in gold-tooled leather, some were in velvet which had a considerable amount of gold tooling, and one was in red parchment with the center and corners of each cover ornamented with pieces of white parchment, pierced and gilded. Some of the embroidered bindings of this period have also been attributed to the so-called nuns of Little Gidding. (50, 205)
ferrous sulfate
An astringent salt (FeSO4), usually obtained in the form of the pale green efflorescent, crystalline heptahydrate (FeSO4 .7H2O) as a byproduct, and used extensively in the 19th century in the production of SPRINKLED CALF, MOTTLED CALF, and TREE CALF bindings. Unfortunately, its use resulted in severe deterioration of the leather in most cases. It was also used in the execution of the JAPAN MARBLE. It is sometimes used today in dyeing or finishing with dyewoods to impart a blue-black shade to leather, in the manufacture of writing inks, and in engraving and lithography. Also called "copperas," or "green vitriol." (237)
festoon drying
A method of air drying paper. The paper is hung in loops (festoons) over rods which move slowly through a drying chamber in which the temperature and humidity are controlled. This type of drying is used for paper that has been tub sized or coated. (5, 17)
fiber
1. A small, slender tube which is the unit cell of vegetable growth and the basic unit of paper pulps. Fibers are sometimes considered to be of two classes, i.e., bast and wood, but they are more appropriately designated by reference to the tissue or region in which they occur. e.g., cortical fibers, pericyclic fibers, phloem fibers, wood fibers, leaf fibers, etc. Other types of fiber, such as mineral, animal and synthetic, are also used to a certain extent in paper manufacture. The longest natural fibers normally encountered in papers are about one fourth of an inch in length and the shortest about one-sixteenth of an inch. Fibers are generally about 100 times longer than they are wide, although some fibers, such as cotton, have a length to diameter ratio of more than 1,000 to 1. The walls of all fibers are composed of small strands called FIBRILS. Chemically the fibrils are composed of a number of cellulose chains. Other chemical components in fibers other than cellulose include hemicelluloses and lignin. The physical properties of length, diameter, wall thickness, and FINES content are the most significant in determining the characteristics of paper made from natural fibers. The approximate relationships between fiber characteristics and paper properties are: Property of the Paper: Increased by: Decreased by: tensile strength long fiber large diameter stretch long fiber thick cell wall tearing resistance long fiber, thick cell wall folding endurance long fiber thick cell wall opacity thick cell wall, long fiber high fines content bulk long fiber, thick cell wall porosity long fiber, large diameter thick cell wall formation thick cell wall, long fiber high fines, large diameter The chemical characteristics also have a significant effect on the properties of the paper. The length of the CELLULOSE CHAIN, for example, which is the basic unit in a fiber, contributes greatly to the strength of the fiber. If these chains are naturally short, or have been shortened either by chemical or mechanical treatment or influences, the strength of the fibers will be naturally lower or else reduced; therefore the paper will be weaker. In addition, the paper loses strength if the cellulose chains are shortened due to chemical action subsequent to manufacture of the paper. Paper pulps that contain a high degree of hemicelluloses are easy to refine, have good bonding strength and low tearing resistance, and good RATTLE. Excessive bleaching of the fibrous stock, especially when done with strong caustic extractions, results in removal of hemicelluloses. The fibers then have greater flexibility but do not bond together effectively, resulting in a paper that is soft and absorbent. Unbleached paper pulps tend to contain more lignin than is found in bleached pulps. The presence of lignin results in stiffer, tougher fibers which do not collapse against each other very well, resulting in fewer interfiber bonds being formed during manufacture. Bleached fibers, on the other hand, conform better and afford greater contact between fibers, resulting in a stronger paper. While bleached fibers conform better than unbleached, improper bleaching may result in the loss of hemicelluloses and damage to the cellulose chains. 2. The complex proteinaceous structure, composed of ropelike bundles of fibrils organized in long, wavy bundles that vary in diameter from approximately 1 to 20 microns. These proteinaceous fibers make up the principal constituent of COLLAGEN. (18, 72, 323, 363)
fiber boards
1. Pressing boards made up of laminated sheets of heavily pressed fiber. 2. Pressing boards made of hard wood that have flanges of hard pressed fiber instead of brass or other metal.
fiber composition
The various types of fibers making up a sheet of paper or board, generally expressed in percentages. Fiber physiology and various staining methods are generally used to determine fiber composition. (17)
fiberize
A process used to reduce wood chips, reclaimed paper stock, dry broke, and other papermaking fibrous materials to individual fibers. The equipment used for this includes disc mills, conical refiners, etc. Sometimes the materials are first softened with water or steam, or by chemical treatment before the mechanical action. (17, 98)
fiber orientation
The direction in which the greater proportion of the fibers of a paper have their larger dimension, which is their length. Handmade papers have the least degree of lengthwise orientation due to the multiple shaking of the mold when it is lifted from the vat, which causes the fibers to settle in various directions. Machine-made papers have the greater proportion of their fibers oriented in the longer or MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper; however, some Fourdrinier papermaking machines are equipped with shaking wires that cause more fibers to shift away from the direction of movement of the wire. (157, 320)
fibrilae
See: FIBRILS.
fibrillation
The process of loosening the threadlike elements known as FIBRILS from the wall of the fiber, thus providing greater surface area for the formation of fiber-to-fiber bonds. Also called "brushing out" (17, 98)
fibrils
The fine, threadlike elements that make up the structure of fibers of certain natural and synthetic materials and which are considered to be made up ultimately of long-chain molecules oriented in a bundle in one direction. In vegetable fibers they are the threadlike elements of the wall of the native cellulose fiber, consisting of still finer microscopic microfibrils. In animal fibers they are the long proteinaceous filaments consisting of bundles of submicroscopic micelles, which in turn are made up of very long molecules of collagen twisted together. Fibrils are the smallest physical unit encountered in fibers; at this point the physical area ends and the chemical area begins. (17, 291, 363)
fibroblasts
Cellular structures which are thought to participate in the formation of the fibers of connective tissue in animals, i.e., FIBRILS, and which may also be responsible for the formation of ground substance. (26, 248, 291, 363)
fiddle stitching
fiddling
A term applied somewhat inaccurately to a method of lacing, rather than stitching, executed by winding thread or cord in and around v-shaped cleats of slots sawn at regular intervals in the spine of the gathered sections. See also: SMYTH-CLEAT SEWING. (12, 81)
filigree doublures
A DOUBLURE (1) consisting of ornamental openwork of an intricate design, frequently of hairlike arabesques, intricate backgrounds of flowering vines with delicate spiraling stems, cut from leather and laid over a contrasting background. See also: ONLAY, (347)
fill
fill in filling
1. The heavy paper pasted to the insides of the boards within the edges of the turn-ins. See also: FILLING IN (1). 2. The paper used to fill out albums bound with stubs so as to make the book of equal thickness from fore edge to spine for purposes of trimming, casing-in, etc. 3. The material used to fill a fabric. See: BOOK CLOTH; BUCKRAM 4. See: FENCE (2). 5. See: SPINE LINING (1). 6. See: LOADING (2). 7. See: WEFT. (274), 341)
filled
A BOOK CLOTH treated with a chemical compound which fills the interstices and/or covers the fibers of the fabric to give it body, color or other desirable physical or chemical characteristics. (102)
filler
1. A material, such as acrylic, starch or pyroxylin, used to fill the interstices of a base fabric. The principal characteristics desired include cheapness, flexibility, water resistance, durability, printability, mold and fungi resistance, and resistance to insects and other vermin. See also: BOOK CLOTH; BUCKRAM. 2. Usually, a non-fibrous material added to the fiber furnish of paper. The major characteristics desired include cheapness, opacity, printability, color, and flatness. See also: LOADING (2). 3. The inner ply or plies of a board made up of multiple layers. 4. An ornamented outline or border in gold or color. 5. A relatively nonadhesive substance. such as clay, diatomaceous earth, walnut shell flour, etc., used to extend an adhesive or to provide increased bulk. and/or to improve its working properties, strength, permanence, or other characteristics. See a1so: BINDER (4); EXTENDER (1). 6. See: PADDING (t). (17, 42, 22, 309, 350)
filler clay
A type of CLAY incorporated into the papermaking furnish before sheet formation. Its purpose is to fill the voids between the paper fibers so as to improve printability, opacity, brightness. etc. Filler clays, such as KAOLIN, may be of a larger particle size than those clays used as COATING CLAY. (17)
fillet
See illustration 1. A wheel-shaped finishing tool having one or more raised bands on its circumference. It is used to impress a line or parallel lines on the covering material of a book, usually one bound in leather. The lines may be continuous or the fillets may have a wedge-shaped gap in the circumference to facilitate starting and stopping lines and also to enable lines to be joined evenly at corners. It is not known when the fillet first came into use. Bindings of the 12th century, and even earlier, have impressed lines that could have been made with a fillet, but they may also have been impressed with a pallet, or similar tool, dragged across the leather rather than rolled. It is argued that it probably did not precede the roll, which was introduced in about 1470. by any great length of time, because once a wheel-type tool was introduced, it would soon be patterned. It is sometimes called a "roulette" in the United States. 2. The plain line or lines impressed on a book cover. The so-called French fillet is a triple fillet (always in gold) having unevenly spaced lines. (69, 161. 172, 236, 335)
fillet pad
A mechanical device which unwinds ribbon gold (leaf) when gilding by means of a fillet or roll. (264)
fillet rolls
Finishing tools consisting of brass rolls approximately 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches in diameter, with 1, 2, or 3 lines on the circumference. See also: FILLET (1). (264)
filling
See: WEFT; PADDING (1).
filling in
1. The operation of pasting heavy paper to the insides of the boards of a book within the turn-ins of the covering material. The purpose of filling in is to prevent the thickness of the turn-ins from being noticeable under the board papers. Filling in is done only in craft bookbinding. 2. A fault in blocking, printing, etc., in which the spaces in types, or the spaces between the dots of a halftone block, fill with gold, coloring, or ink. In blocking it may be caused by worn or damaged type, or by a type holder that is too hot; in printing, it may be caused by too much ink, or an ink that is unsuitable for the job, by the form being too high, the rollers being set incorrectly, or by the use of an unsuitable paper, especially one which fluffs. (92, 156, 161, 335)
film forming
That property of an adhesive which enables it to cast a continuous dimensionally stable film. Film forming also refers to the relative strength of the cast adhesive film. Adhesives with good film forming characteristics are those which tend to deposit more uniform films of high structural strength. (222)
fine paper copy
A book printed on paper of a superior quality (which often but not always is larger in size) than the balance of the edition, which is printed on ordinary paper.
fine red
A marbling color used before the introduction of synthetic dyestuffs, and prepared by boiling Brazil dust, nutgalls, alum, sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) and hydrochloric acid in water, or by dissolving Brazil wood in hydrochloric acid. (97)
fines
The very short fibers or fiber fragments and ray cells. Both types are very short, consequently they reduce the strength of the paper. The fines from broken fibers have thicker cell walls and larger diameters than those from ray cells, which leads to differences in the final sheet depending upon which types are present. Sometimes also called "flour" or "wood flour." (42)
finish
1. The degree of brilliance, pliability and working qualities of cloth, leather, or paper. 2. To letter and/or decorate a book. See: FINISHING. 3. the surface properties of a sheet of paper as determined by its surface contour, gloss, and general appearance. It is a property which is usually determined visually. In uncoated printing papers, there are five major finishes recognized under the general terminology of machine-finish papers; in order of decreasing degree of smoothness, they are: English, machine, vellum, eggshell, and antique. For papers of higher finish, see: SUPERCALENDER finish. Writing papers, including bonds, ledges, and manilas, generally have finishes called cockle, glazed, machine, supercalendered, and vellum. The finishes used for cover paper include antique, machine, plate, supercalendered, and vellum. The principal finishes for bristols are antique, eggshell, plate, and vellum. (17, 72)
finish break
A CRUSTY BREAK of a leather—one which can be attributed to improper finishing.
finisher
1. The bookbinder or gilder who performs the processes of polishing the leather, lettering. and embellishing, which are carried out on a hand-bound book subsequent to forwarding. In France, it is not unusual for the two operations—i.e., forwarding and finishing—to he performed by different persons: in England and the United States. on the other hand, the two are usually done by the same craftsman. except in commercial hand binding. 2. A machine used to apply varnish, lacquer, or other fluid to covering materials by means of a spray or roller, or a printing or blocking plate. 3. A term sometimes applied to flat or cylindrical polishing tools, e.g., a BURNISHER (2). (158. 173)
finishing
1. The art or process of polishing, lettering, and embellishing the spine, covers. insides of the covers. and sometimes the edges of a book. as well as inlaying, onlaying, varnishing, and otherwise decorating and/or protecting the finished bookbinding. The purpose of finishing is to identify (letter) and beautify the hook. but, at least in the latter case, in such a manner as not to interfere with the strength of the binding. The degree of finishing, depends upon the nature of the book, the craftsmanship of the binder or finisher (gilder. as he is traditionally called), whether another craftsman did the forwarding, and, at times, the wishes of the customer. Finishing has assumed a very important role in the craft of bookbinding since the earliest times. Almost all early finishing, at least in Europe, was in blind until the latter half of the 15th century, when GOLD TOOLING was introduced into Italy. See also: BLIND TOOLING. In modern finishing. all but the simplest designs are measured out and drawn or tooled on thin paper. This is then positioned on the cover and heated tools are pressed through. The paper is then removed, and the blind impressions are again blinded-in. This sharpens and deepens the impressions, and, if gold is to be used, provides a smooth flat surface for the metal. In addition to making it possible to execute extremely difficult patterns without making errors on the leather itself, the use of a paper pattern eliminates the necessity of making basic guide lines in blind upon which the design is then built, and which almost invariably show beyond the tooling. It is uncertain when paper patterns were introduced, but they probably were not used much before 1830. Not all leathers can be tooled successfully. Aside from the great difficulty encountered in tooling chrome-tanned leathers, only those vegetable-tanned (or tawed) leathers with surfaces firm enough to hold a line, such as goatskin, calfskin, pigskin, etc., are suitable. With the exception of sheepskin, leathers that are loose and stretchy do not retain impressions very well. Library bindings are seldom "finished" to any greater degree than lettering of the spine, although gold lines and/or symbols are sometimes blocked on the spine. Edition bindings vary widely in the degree of their ornamentation. Whatever ornamentation they may have is usually done by means of blocking or printing. Whichever the case. they are "finished" only in the very broadest sense of the term. See also: BLOCKING (1); GOLD BLOCKING; INLAY (4); ONLAY; POLISHING. 2. The various operations in paper manufacture performed after it leaves the papermaking machine. Finishing operations include supercalendering, plating, slitting, rewinding, sheeting, trimming, sorting, counting, and packaging. Ruling, punching, pasting, folding and embossing are also at times considered to be paper finishing operations. 3. The processes in leather manufacture following tannage, including shaving or splitting, dyeing, fatliquoring, setting out, drying, staking, finishing or seasoning, glazing (or plating or embossing), and measuring. (118, 130, 161, 172, 194, 236, 320, 335, 343, 363)
finishing press
A small press consisting essentially of two wooden cheeks, connected by a screw at each end. with handles for turning. A press pin is not required for this type of press. The finishing press is similar to the cutting- or lying-press, but is smaller and generally has no runners. It came into use as long ago as the early 19th century, and no basic changes were made in this basic press until a completely different type came into use in the 1880s. This new press consisted of two small cheeks, somewhat like rounded-off backing boards, which moved on joints. (161)
finishing stand
1. A revolving stand consisting of a flat, circular board, covered with a soft, smooth material, mounted on another board. The lower board is stationary and rests on rubber knobs which are attached to its lower surface to raise it and prevent slipping. Ball bearings between the two boards allow the top one to revolve easily, thus making it possible to shift the position of the book with minimum effort. 2. A stand with a sliding shelf and an arm clamp which can be attached to the bench to hold a book while finishing. See also: FINISHING PRESS. (264)
finishing stove
A small stove used for heating finishing and lettering tools. Such stoves generally have a circular plate in the center which is heated. and an outer notched ring to support the handles of the tools. Modern finishing stoves are heated by gas or electricity, and some are controlled by a thermostat. While little is known of the form of early finishing stoves, many different types were probably used, because they were frequently fabricated according to the bookbinder's own specifications. A great variety were in use during the early years of the 19th century, all of which burned charcoal or coke, as they must have done for centuries. The gas-heated stove was probably introduced in the 1830s, while the electric stove has been in use since the early part of the 20th century. (130, 161, 236, 335)
finishing tools
See: BAND PALLET; CIRCLES; CREASER (2); FILLET (1); GOUGE; HAND LETTERS; PALLET (1); POLISHER; ROLL. (1); STAMP (1); UNIT TOOLS.
firmness of leather
That property of a leather reflected in the force required to bend a standard strip of heavy leather through an arc of given radius of curvature. so that the grain surface of the leather forms an arc of a circle of given radius. (363)
first binding
The original binding of a library book. The term is not generally used with reference to the binding of serial publications. but to the binding of pamphlets in self-covers, paperback books, sewn books in temporary covers, or books in gatherings. (129)
first edition
The entire number of copies of a book or other publication printed from the same setting of type. The books may be printed at any time. A new edition does not come into being until there have been substantial changes in the type, i.e., a corrected edition, additions to the text (which is a revised edition), or until the type has been reset, which would be a new edition, 2nd edition, etc. (69, 156)
first impression
1. The initial application of a finishing tool or hand letter to the covering material of a book. 2. All of the copies of a book printed during the first printing operation and before any alterations or additions are made. Subsequent printings following the first, producing reprints, are called "second impression," "third impression," etc. (140)
first lining
The initial strip of material attached to the spine of a book subsequent to rounding and backing. In edition and library binding, it is generally the only lining. See also: SECOND LINING; SPINE LINING (1). (154, 343)
firsts
1. Hides and skins that are, or at least are designated as, perfect, i.e., free from holes, tears, putrefactive damage, etc. See also: GOOD SECONDS. 2. A term applied at times to the FIRST EDITION of a book. (335)
fish glue
An adhesive obtained by boiling the skins of certain fish, particularly the cod fish, and used cold mainly in the liquid form. It works easily and is used in bookbinding for tipping-in and casemaking. See also: ISINGLASS (191, 309)
fish grained split
A sheepskin split, dyed and finished by embossing with a small "gunpowder" grain. (97)
fish scales
A particular grain pattern in a leather resembling the scales of a fish. Leather with this type of grain was at one time used by bookbinders who wanted a leather giving the effect of being blind tooled. (97)
fixation value
The relative speed with which different vegetable tannins combine with hide substance as measured by the relative amounts which combine under specified conditions. (248)
fixative
A clear solution, such as a synthetic resin in xylene (C8H10) sprayed or coated on a work of art, a reproduction copy, etc., that "fixes" or stabilizes the image, thus making it more resistant to wear, smudging, etc. Fixatives protect and preserve, but they also at times change the refractive index and may also impart an unnatural sheen to the colors, possibly one not intended by the artist. (233)
fixed back
See: TIGHT BACK.
fixed tannin
See: COMBINED TANNIN IN LEATHER.
flag
1. A marker, such as a small strip of colored paper, placed so as to protrude from between the leaves of a book. Its purpose is either to show the position of the book on the shelf, or to indicate that the leaf marked (or the entire book) requires special attention. 2. A slip placed in the center of each section to facilitate sewing of the headband. (139, 173)
flaking
The separating of the coating material from a coated sheet of paper or cloth, appearing in the form of flakes. Art paper and the cheaper grades of coated cloth are particularly subject to this problem. (17)
flange
The projection on either side of the spine of a text block that has been rounded and backed. It is commonly, and more accurately, referred to as the SHOULDER (1). (12, 256)
flat back binding
1. A hand-bound book which has not been rounded and backed before the boards are attached. The term is also sometimes applied to a book which has lost its round; however FLAT SPINE is a more appropriate term for this condition. The spine of a flat back binding has a tendency to become concave. Also called "square back." See also: FLAT BACK CASE BINDING. 2. A leather binding which does not have bands appearing on the spine. (140, 236, 335, 343)
flat back case binding
A simple type of (library) binding which has a flat spine and is cased or has a one-piece covering. This type of binding is suitable for typescript, some pamphlets, and adhesive-bound paperbacks. (258)
flat cut index
See: CUT THROUGH INDEX.
flat finish
A paper having a smooth, glare-free finish.
flats
An old term applied to papers of various types which have a well closed, even formation and a high finish, and which are particularly suitable for writing purposes. The term derives from the practice of counting into quires and then folding the pack. When it became the practice to deliver writing papers unfolded, they were called "flats." Today the term is usually restricted to papers such as tablet paper, as well as to paper with a smooth, flat finish as distinguished from bond finish. (197)
flat spine
The shape given to books in the 1820s. They were not the same as the FLAT BACK BINDING because they were backed but not rounded, or had very little rounding. The flat spine and HOLLOW BACK came into use at about the same time. (236)
flax
The bast fiber from the inner bark of the flax plant (Linun usitatissimum), and the source of linen for thousands of years. The bast fiber is about 25 mm long and approximately 0.02 mm thick, giving it a length to diameter ratio of about 1,250:1. It is thinner than the cotton fiber and its tube has thicker walls. It is also stiffer and stronger than cotton, has a rounded section and is knotted at intervals along its length. Linen rags, cuttings, thread, etc., have long been used in the manufacture of paper. See also: BOOK CLOTH; SEWING THREAD. (17, 143)
flaying
The process of removing the hide or skin from an animal carcass. Flaying is normally the job of the butcher, and, in general, the methods used in flaying give first priority to producing a good quality carcass, not hide, as the animal is generally slaughtered for its meat. The animal should be in a clean, healthy condition and the slaughter rapid and efficient. Bruising should be carefully avoided. The animal is bled after slaughter to remove blood from the carcass and also from the small veins and arteries in the skin. If this is not done rapidly, the blood will clot and putrefy, resulting in blue-black markings in the skin. The skin should also be removed immediately, while the carcass is still warm, as removal then is much easier. Subsequent to flaying, the skin cools down more quickly, giving less chance of putrefaction. Some form of curing generally follows flaying. See also: BRINING; DRY-SALTING; PUTREFACTIVE DAMAGE; WET-SALTING. (248, 291, 306, 363)
flea seed
A small, brown, hard seed, so called because of its resemblance to a flea. It is boiled in water to make MARBLING SIZE. It was usually used in combination with GUM TRAGACANTH in the execution of the shell and Spanish marble patterns. It was not (and apparently could not) be used for the drawn or combed marbles, as it dragged the colors and did not allow the comb to pass through smoothly. As it has no advantage over CARRAGHEEN MOSS or gum tragacanth, its use was never extensive and it is seldom if ever used at all today. (217, 236, 369)
flesher
The inside split (flesh split) of a lamb- or sheepskin, embossed and finished in imitation of grained leather, and used at times for lining the spines of cheaper blankbooks. See also: BUFFING (1). (61, 264)
fleshing
One of the beamhouse operations in leather manufacture. Fleshing consists of the removal of areolar tissue from the flesh side of a hide or skin. It usually precedes liming, and is generally done by means of a fleshing machine, or, in hand work, by working the skin over the beam with a sharp, two-handed knife. In European tanneries, fleshing generally takes place following liming and unhairing. Fleshing promotes the entry of water from the flesh side, which is important as water is absorbed more readily from the flesh side than from the epidermal or grain side. Fleshing also flattens and stretches the skin, has a pronounced cleaning action, and, in the case of greasy skin, such as domestic sheep or pig, removes a quantity of surplus fat. Good, clean fleshing is important for the success of all subsequent processes, as bits of flesh or fat on the skin can retard the penetration of tannins, fatliquors, and the like. See also: GREEN FLESHING. (291, 363)
flesh side
The side of a hide or skin next to the animal, or the side opposite the grain side. See also: BUFFING (1); REVERSE CALF; SPLIT.
flesh split
1. The inner layer of a hide or skin separated from the main part of the skin by means of a splitting machine. 2. The leather made from such a split. See also: FLESHER. (61)
fleur-de-lis-lozenge
A lozenge shaped finishing tool made up of a fleur-de-lis, or a variation thereof, the three pedals and stalks of which extend to fill the four corners. (250)
fleuron
A finishing tool cut in a nondescript form, partly floral or foliage in nature, generally of a lozenge shape and generally used to fill the lozenge compartments of a panel that is divided by diagonal fillets. (250)
flexible adhesives
See: ADHESIVES; FLEXIBLE GLUE; INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED; RESINOUS ADHESIVES.
flexible endpaper
An endpaper designed to provide a flyleaf that is heavier than a single sheet of paper, but is still flexible enough to not interfere with the opening of the book. Developed at the workshop of British binders Roger Powell and Peter Waters between 1960 and 1965, this endpaper is constructed by tipping two folios together in two places: along the spine and along the fore edge.
flexible glue
Generally, an ordinary animal glue containing GLYCEROL or SORBITOL, the softening effect of the latter supposedly lasting longer than the former. These softening agents, or "humectants," are hygroscopic and may, under certain conditions, absorb so much moisture as to promote the growth of mold; consequently a mold inhibitor is generally included in the plasticizer. The origin of "flexible" animal glues is unknown, but they were certainly in use since early in the 20th century. Their use in bookbinding, however, has declined sharply in recent years in favor of INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED synthetic adhesives, such as the RESINOUS ADHESIVES. (198, 236)
flexible not to show
A method of sewing the sections of a book in which the spine of the gathered sections is sawn lightly so that the saw cuts do not penetrate completely through the folds of the sections. The sewing is then done on thin cords, encircling them as in FLEXIBLE SEWING. If the cords project above the spine after sewing they are hammered into the grooves during backing. Books sewn in this manner may have hollow or tight backs; in the case of the hollow back, the purpose of sewing not to show apparently is to prevent creasing of the leather of the spine by the cords, while attempting to retain the strength of genuine flexible sewing. In the case of the tight back, the purpose is to have a smooth spine and a book with sewing that is stronger than is possible with RECESSED-CORD SEWING; however, in this case, most of the desired benefits are negated because of the need to make the cords extremely thin. (236, 371)
flexible sewing
A method of sewing the sections of a book to cords or bands which are above the backs of the sections and rest against them, instead of being recessed into the paper. See: RECESSED-CORD SEWING. The sewing thread is looped completely around the cords, instead of passing in front of them. This type of sewing may be done on single or double cords and is one of the strongest forms of hand sewing known. The method was in use in Europe as early as the 8th century, and represents the foundation upon which hand bookbinding was built and developed for a thousand years. The number of bands, which were always double (i.e., two cords or thongs adjacent to each other and almost touching), on which 12th and 13th century books were sewn varied from two to five (in the latter case the cords being spaced so there was a greater space between the cords than between the end bands and the head and tail of the book), although examples of books sewn on as many as fourteen cords are known. The use of double cords gradually diminished, however, and by the middle of the 16th century the technique of sewing on single cords had become fairly well established, although largely for smaller books and economical bindings. The use of flexible sewing has been dominant in fine binding until the present day; however, its use declined sharply from the end of the 18th century until the end of the 19th century, when it was revived to some extent due to the efforts of T.J. Cobden-Sanderson and Douglas Cockerell. Flexible sewing is not suitable for books printed on very heavy paper, nor in cases where the book is made up of very thick sections. It is also unsuitable for use with coated papers. If used on small volumes, the sewing thread and, therefore, the cords, must be proportionally thinner; otherwise there will be a reduction in flexibility. (]61, 72, 236, 335, 343)
flexural strength
A measure of the ability of an adhesive film to withstand repeated flexing, bending, twisting, etc. Flexural strength is of paramount importance in the adhesives used in archival work in general, and bookbinding in particular, especially in adhesives used for gluing up the spine and adhesive binding. (222)
flint hides
Hides dried without curing.
flock paper
A speciality cover paper produced by coating the sheet with size, either all over or in patterns or designs, and then applying specially dyed flock powder. Flock paper originally was intended to simulate tapestry and Italian velvet brocade. (17, 197)
flock powder
Very short or pulverized fiber, such as wool, cotton, or rayon, used in flock printing and to form velvety patterns on cloth and paper.
floriated
A border, initial letter, or book decorated with small flower or leaf ornaments. (140)
floss
Cotton or silk thread used in binding single section pamphlets, usually by side sewing tied in a bowknot. (256)
flour
See: FINES.
flourish style
See: FANFARE STYLE.
flower-headed rivet
A finishing tool cut with an ornamental head in a design resembling a daisy. (250)
fluffing
1. The process of reducing the substance and smoothing the flesh side of a skin or hide during leather manufacture. See also: BUFFING (2); SNUFFING. 2. The removal of the free or loosely bonded fibers, loading material or dust from the surface of paper during impression. Fluff is a particular defect encountered in lithographic printing, and results in the printed matter showing white or gray images in paper fibers, or other material, removed from the surface of the paper. (93, 306)
flush
flush binding flush cut
See: CUT FLUSH.
flush board binding
A style of binding having the boards glued to the board papers and a paper cover glued to the boards. The book is then CUT FLUSH.
fly embossing press
An early version of the BLOCKING PRESS, which was capable of exerting the enormous pressure required to block covers with engraved plates often of the same size as the cover, even quartos and folios. This type of press was probably introduced sometime in the late 1820s by JOSEPH THOUVENIN and was used extensively until the later part of the 19th century. The description "fly" may stem from the instantaneous release of pressure (the platen "flying" up). (203, 236)
flying out
A convex shape to the fore edge of a book, resulting from lack of, or improper, rounding, backing, lining of the spine, or a combination thereof.
fly leaf
A leaf or leaves at the beginning and end of a hook, being the leaf or leaves not pasted to the boards, or covers, of the book. See also: ENDPAPERS. (69, 335)
flyswing
A very thin SKIVER used extensively for title labels on cloth- and leather-bound books, and generally lettered in gold. In library binding, the "flyswing" has been replaced by labels of paper and (occasionally) cloth. (140)
Fogel, Johannes
fl 1455-?1460
One of the most celebrated of German bookbinders, Fogel bound at least one and perhaps as many as four copies of the Gutenberg Bible, one of which bears his signature. Fogel's tools included a rope knot and a lute player stamp, as well as triple fillets accompanied by rosettes. He also worked finely made headbands in red, white, and blue silk. All of his bindings are decorated in a manner characteristic of ERFURT BINDINGS, having the long, narrow center panel enclosed in a broad border, with all lines crossing at the ends to form squares in the corners. Little is known of Fogel after 1460. All of his extant signed bindings are thought to have been bound at Erfurt before 1460, and by 1461 some of his stamps were being used in conjunction with others and without his signature on the bindings, but it is not known whether he retired from binding or just stopped signing his bindings. In 1462 his lute player and rope knot finishing tools appear on a binding signed by Paulus Lehener. It is possible, although probably unlikely, that he discarded some tools and acquired others. (141)
foil
See: BLOCKING FOIL.
fold and dye papers
Decorative end- and cover-papers which have been folded (in parallel folds several times or into accordion pleats) and painted with color along the edges and corners, or dipped into a dye or paint mixture. Japanese papers are usually used in this technique. (183)
fold binder
One of the simplest forms of "binding," consisting of a sheet of cover stock with a series of scores running vertically and extending outward from the center fold to allow for expansion. The grain of the cover stock should run from head to tail so as to facilitate folding and scoring. (146)
folded book
folding book
A form of book consisting of a long strip of paper folded "concertina-wise" and attached at one or both ends to stiff covers. The "folded book" is common in the Orient but much less so in other parts of the world, except in books of an unusual nature, such as books of a pictorial nature with views of places and/or panoramas. (156)
folder
1. A thin length of wood, bone, ivory, or other material, from 6 to 12 inches long, and 1 to 1 1/2 inches wide. The typical folder is approximately 1/8 inch thick. It is tapered to the edges, has rounded edges and ends, and is used in folding sheets by hand and cutting bolts, and also in numerous binding operations. 2. See: FOLDING MACHINES. 3. A publication consisting of one sheet of paper folded to make two or more leaves but not stitched or cut. 4. A large sheet of stiff paper, usually manila, folded once. It has a projection or tag for heading at the top of the rear portion. (204)
folding
The process of folding flat printed sheets into sections. The number of leaves in a single folded sheet is always a multiple of two: 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 leaves, giving 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 pages respectively. Sections with 6, 12, 18 etc., leaves may be obtained by the use of other than standard types of folding, or by the use of more than one sheet, e.g., an envelope fold followed by a right angle fold will give 6 leaves (12 pages), or a full sheet folded three times, plus a half sheet folded twice and insetted within the full sheet will give a section of 12 leaves (24 pages). Although a single sheet of paper can be folded nine times, in bookwork it is unusual to find a sheet folded more than four times, and most sheets are slit or perforated if they are to be folded at right angles more than twice, so as to reduce wrinkling and buckling. The principal folds are the parallel (or buckle) and right angle, with the latter being the most commonly used fold in bookwork. The parallel fold is generally used for very narrow books, or for those that are printed TWO UP. The third most commonly used fold, though used far less than either of the preceding, is the concertina fold, which is used for maps and folders, as well as for some book sections. Almost all folding today is done by machine; however, in the early days of the folding machine, the work was so inaccurate that good folding could be done only by hand. Folding is done "to the paper" or "to the print," i.e., register. See also: FOLD TO PAPER; FOLD TO PRINT; FOLDING MACHINES; IMPOSITION; REGISTER (4). (82, 182, 229, 234, 335, 339, 343)
folding book
See: FOLDED (FOLDING) BOOK,
folding endurance
The number of folds which a specimen (usually paper) will withstand before failure, under controlled conditions in a specified instrument. In the usual test, a specimen is subjected repeatedly to double folds through a wide angle while under tension. Folding endurance is a very important indication of the durability of archival papers. The test is usually conducted in an environmental room. A decline in folding endurance is the most sensitive indicator of aging and deterioration of paper. (17, 62)
folding in gangs
A method of folding printed sheets by means of a folding machine that folds a large sheet into several sections in one operation. As the sheet passes through the machine, it is folded, cut into sections, the heads are slit and the sections are then delivered singly or inset. (140)
folding machines
Machines that fold flat printed sheets into sections. The two main features of modern folding machines are: 1) the knife which dips between two rotating rollers that form a "nip;" and 2) the plate that forms an envelope into which the sheet is propelled, bending or buckling it along a desired line as it makes its exit from the plate. Three main types of folding machines are in use today: the knife folder, buckle (or plate) folder, and combination folders, which are machines that employ both knife and buckle folding in different stages in the same machine. All three types are designed to take standard sizes of paper and are suitable for different types and classes of work. In the knife folder, a blunt-edged knife is set parallel with and above the slot formed by the two rollers. The rollers revolve continuously so that when a sheet is placed over them and the knife descends, the paper is caught between the rollers and carried away, a fold being made where the knife made contact. In practice the sheets are fed one at a time to stops, either by hand or by mechanical feeders, and are carried by moving tapes beneath the knife where they are precisely positioned mechanically for folding. The knife having descended, the sheet, now folded once, is carried by rollers and tapes to a second unit of knife and rollers where a second fold is made, then a third fold, etc., the folded sheets (now sections) being delivered to a stacker. If any knife is at right angles to the previous unit a fold at right angles to the previous fold is made; however, if the machine is constructed with the folding units parallel to preceding folds then parallel folds are made. If it is desired to slit the sheet into individual sections during folding, the sheet will travel through rotary slitters when passing from one folding unit to the next, and the individual sections of the sheet will be conveyed to individual folding units. In this manner, a sheet printed with 64 pages can be slit into four parts producing four individual 16-page sections. Machines are normally provided with perforators which perforate the bolts, thus preventing wrinkling and buckling. Buckle folders work on a different principle. The sheet is fed end first between a pair of continuously revolving rollers and the leading edge is guided between two closely spaced plates, the plane of the plates being at an angle of 45° to the plane of feeding. The plates are fitted with internal adjustable stops, and when the leading edge of the sheet hits these stops further forward motion is prevented. The latter half of the sheet, however, is still being propelled forward by the rollers and, being already bent at an angle of 45°, the sheet buckles at the point of entry to the plates. The buckle is gripped between the lower roller and a third roller in contact with it and the buckle passes between these rollers, thus forming a fold. The portion of the sheet between the plates is immediately withdrawn by this action, leaving the mechanism clear for the next sheet. The sheet continues to be propelled by rollers and the folded edge may be deflected into a second and then third plate, producing additional folds parallel to the first. Buckle folders frequently incorporate knife folding units, the knives being used to make folds at right angles to the parallel buckle fold. As with knife folding machines, perforators and slitters are incorporated for use at various stages of folding. Buckle folders are generally run at higher speeds than knife folders, but knife folders are used in book work because they are better adapted for handling a greater diversity of papers. The largest knife folders will fold a flat sheet of 128 pages, producing four 32-page sections, each with four folds. Buckle folders, in their most complex form, can produce almost any series of folds, but, in general, they are used more for the folding of advertising matter than for book work. The first folding machine is believed to have been introduced in about 1850 by a man named Blake. In 1856, Cyrus Chambers, Jr., patented and sold a folding machine to the Lippincott Publishing Company. Although the accuracy of early folders was poor, with hand folding still predominating for better grade work, development of the folding machine after 1862 was rapid, and in 1873 a machine was patented that would fold a 16-page section and one of 8 pages, inset the latter, and paste it in place. That same year devices to cut and slit paper as it went through the machine were introduced. Automatic feeders were also developed, one being patented in 1855. Modern folding machines are available in many sizes, capable of folding sheets measuring 4 by 4 inches up to 26 by 60 inches and, in special cases, even up to 50 by 74 inches. (52, 101, 179, 320, 339)
folding needle
A needle, usually of steel imbedded in a wooden handle, and used by some bookbinders in tight places for such work as mitering covers and turning-in on slipcases. It is also used at times for scoring.
foldings
A general term applied to printed sheets which have been folded in various ways to form sections. Foldings from 4 to 128 are given in the table provided below.
folding stick
A long, thin polished piece of wood, bone, plastic, or other material, used when folding paper by hand to crease the sheet without soiling or otherwise damaging it. See also: FOLDER (1). (173)
folding strength
See: FOLDING ENDURANCE.
foldouts
Inserts that are larger than the trim size of the book or other publication and which must be folded before insertion. When they are the same height as the book but wider they may be tipped in, but when they are both higher and wider, or just higher, they must be LIPPED. See also: FULL APRON; THROW OUT. (316, 339)
fold sewing
A general term applied to sewing a book through the folds of the sections. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; FRENCH SEWING; MACHINE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING; TAPE SEWING (1)
fold to paper
An instruction to the binder to fold the printed sheets of a book so that the edges of the leaves and bolts are even. Cf: FOLD TO PRINT. (156)
fold to print
fold to register
An instruction to the binder to fold the printed sheets of a book to register, i.e., the edges of the printed areas are to be placed exactly over one another. C: FOLD TO PAPER. (156)
foliaged staff
A finishing stamp cut in the form of a branch entwined with foliage, sometimes intertwined with berries. A foliaged staff is usually used to form a frame. (250) Foldings Section Size Symbol Customary Leaves Pages Number of Folds Folio fo 1 2 4 Quarto 4to 2 4 8 Sixmo 6to varies 6 12 Octavo 8vo 3 8 16 Twelvemo 12mo varies 12 24 Sixteenmo 16mo 4 16 32 Eighteenmo 18mo varies 18 36 Twenty-fourmo 24mo varies 24 48 Thirty-twomo 32mo 5 32 64 Thirty-sixmo 36mo varies 36 72 Forty-eightmo 48mo varies 48 96 Sixty-fourmo 64mo varies 64 128
foliate
To number the leaves of a book instead of the pages. This results in the rectos and versos having the same number, as 1, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, etc. It is a method of numbering commonly found in blankbooks. (274)
foliation
1. The total number of leaves, whether numbered or unnumbered, contained in a book or manuscript. 2. The numbering of the leaves of a book or manuscript. Foliation was relatively rare until the last quarter of the 15th century. It consisted originally of the word Folio, or an abbreviation, followed by a Roman numeral. Arabic figures were used in Italy between 1475 and 1500, and outside Italy after 1500. Eventually the Arabic came to be used alone. The numbering of pages (pagination), as opposed to leaves, began to replace foliation near the end of the 16th century but was not finally established until the 18th century. Reference to a page in a foliated book is generally done by using r and v for recto and verso, e.g., 1r or 1v, or by the use of a and b. e.g., 1a or 1b, the latter being preferred because manuscript v is often mistaken for r. Abbreviated ff. See also: PAGINATION. (140, 156)
folio
1. The book size resulting from folding a sheet one time, giving leaves half the size of the sheet. In modern practice double-size paper folded twice, or quad-size paper folded three times would be used, thus producing the requisite folio size but in sections convenient for binding. Abbreviated Fo. or fo. 2. A leaf of parchment or paper numbered only on the recto side. 3. Loosely, the number of a page. 4. An individual leaf of a book. (234, 252, 316)
folio form
Printed sheets that have been folded and gathered, but not bound. See also: GATHERING (1). (322)
font
fount
The complete assortment of all letters and characters in one face and size of type. A type family includes fonts of roman, italic, semi-bold and condensed. See also: TYPE FACE. (12)
fonthill style
A particular style of binding in which the books were sewn on raised cords, and were top edge gilt, had marbled paper sides and endpapers, and were covered in half olive-brown morocco. Finishing consisted of lettering and the date at the tail of the spine. The name derives from Fonthill Abbey in Wiltshire, England, which was built toward the end of the 18th century by William Beckford (1759-1844). (241)
foot
1. The margin at the bottom of a page of type. 2. The under-surface of type. The plane parallel to the face on which the body of type rests. (12, 196)
footage
1. The charge made by the manufacturer or supplier of leather. The method of measurement used in calculating the number of square feet of any particular skin or hide is somewhat complicated, and in practice it is usually found that a skin marked, for example, as four feet, will not give nearly that much area in cut pieces for books; particularly in the case of skins with very ragged edges, e.g., goatskin. The footage charged is usually marked on the flesh side of the skin, and is calculated to the tenth of a foot in the United States, and to a quarter of a foot in England, e.g., 4 = 4 feet, 4/1 = 4 1/4 foot, etc. The measuring is done either by metal pins which record the presence (or absence) of leather by touch, or by a beam of light, which indicates the absence of leather by means of a receptor element. 2. The length or area of a reel of paper expressed in linear or square measure. (335, 363)
fore edge
The edge of a book opposite the spine. Sometimes called "front edge."
fore-edge binding
A style of binding representing a degree between quarter and half-binding, in which a narrow strip of leather or cloth, usually of the same color as that covering the spine, is attached to the outer extremity of each board. The width of the strip generally varies according to the color and decoration, if any, of the material used to cover the sides. (86)
fore-edge margin
The space between the text and the outer extremity of the leaf of a book. Also called "outside margin. See also: BLED; MARGIN (1).
fore-edge painting
A scene painted on the fore edge of a book, either with the edge solid so that the resultant painting is visible with the book closed, or, in the more accepted use of the term, with the edge fanned out so that the painting is not visible with the book closed. When the painting is done with the leaves fanned out, the edge is generally also gilded or marbled in the usual manner, so that the closed book shows no trace whatsoever of the painting. A double fore-edge painting is one with two paintings, which can be viewed independently by fanning the leaves first one way and then the other. A triple fore-edge painting has a visible scene in addition, in which case the edge is not gilded or marbled. The painting of fore edges is very old, going back perhaps as early as the 10th century. These earliest fore-edge paintings consisted of symbolical designs. The art reached England in the 14th century, and among the early fore-edge paintings, such as those executed by Thomas Berthelet for King Henry VIII, consisted of treating the fore edge as a solid panel for a heraldic or other motif in gold and colors. The binder who originated the technique of painting a design on the fanned out leaves is unknown, although Samuel Mearne is thought to have employed one or more artists and binders who did this kind of painting. The first known disappearing painting dates from 1649; the art of fore-edge painting under gold reached its pinnacle in England in the latter half of the 17th century. The art of painting landscapes on fore edges, rather than floral scrolls and armorial bearings, was pioneered by William EDWARDS OF HALIFAX, sometime around 1750. He first used monochrome (brown or gray) and later a full range of colors. Portraits were also included, often flanking a landscape. Subjects portrayed included countrysides, buildings, sports, and scenes based on the content of the book being decorated. The types of books commonly treated in this manner were Bibles and prayer books, the classics, travel books, and poetry. Although the art of fore-edge painting is old, there is clear evidence indicating that the majority of such paintings are the work of the late 19th and 20th centuries, mainly on books dating from the early 19th century. The great number of these paintings was in response to the demand of collectors and, because there was an insufficient number of authentic examples, appropriate books of an earlier time were painted to satisfy this demand. (50, 69, 140, 236)
fore-edge tab
See: INDEX TAB.
fore-edge title
The title of a book written on its fore edge to identify it. This was a common practice in the 16th century when it was customary to shelve books with their fore edges outward. (156)
forel
A grade of PARCHMENT made from a split sheepskin and dressed in imitation of VELLUM. It is not a strong skin and tends to be greasy, which causes difficulties in trying to make it adhere to the boards of a book. Also called "forrel-' and (rarely) "forril." (172, 343)
form
1. A curved block placed between the endpapers of a book and its covers while the leather is being polished, so as to counteract any warpage which may have occurred due to the dampening of the leather while finishing. 2. Pages of type metal and illustrations, arranged in proper order for the printed sheet and locked in a metal frame called a "chase," ready for printing or for making an electrotype or stereotype. (12, 115)
formaldehyde
A very reactive aldehyde (HCHO), that is a colorless, pungent, irritating, combustible gas when pure, but is conveniently handled in the form of aqueous solutions or solid polymers. It is usually prepared by the oxidation of methanol or gaseous hydrocarbons. It has been used to kill, or inhibit, bookworms, and is used in the manufacture of some leathers, in the treatment of certain dyestuffs to render them fast to washing, and for bleaching archival papers. Its tanning properties stem from its ability to render gelatin insoluble in water. See also: ALDEHYDE TANNING; COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE; FORMALIN.
formaldehyde tanning
A process of converting hides and skins into leather by treatment with FORMALDEHYDE. See: ALDEHYDE TANNING. See also: COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE; FORMALIN. (248)
formalin
A solution of FORMALDEHYDE gas in water. A solution of 40% formalin in water, which may also contain traces of formic acid, methyl alcohol, or a white deposit of paraldehyde, is used in tanning some leathers. See also: ALDEHYDE TANNING. (306)
format
1. The number of times a printed sheet has been folded to form the leaves of a section, e.g., folio (folded once to make two leaves or four pages); quarto (folded twice to make four leaves or eight pages), etc. In a broader sense, format is the general proportions and approximate size of a book or other publication which would result from such folding. See also: FOLDINGS. 2. In a very loose sense, the general appearance and make-up of a book, including proportions, size, quality, and style of paper and binding, typography, illustrations, and so on. See also: DUMMY (1). (12, 156, 234)
formation
The distribution of the solid components of a sheet of paper, with special reference to the fibers. It is usually judged by the visual appearance of the sheet when viewed by transmitted light. Formation affects not only look-through appearance but uniformity in several respects, including, finish, subsequent coatings, ink receptivity, and compressibility under printing impression. The selection of paper pulps and their subsequent refining influence formation to a great extent. Short fibers will form better than long ones, while long fibers, which give strength in terms of folding endurance and tear resistance, when used in preponderance, tend to give a cloudy or bunchy look to the formation of the sheet. Loading or fillers improve formation, permitting closer packing and greater density in the sheet, thus improving both levelness and LOOK-THROUGH. There are limits, however, to the amount of loading than can be used, as it weakens the paper because it is dead weight and contributes no strength on its own. (17, 72, 143)
formic acid
A colorless, volatile, weak organic acid (H2CO2). It occurs naturally, e.g., in ants, the fruit of the soaptree, etc., and is also formed as a byproduct in the atmospheric oxidation of turpentine. The principal commercial source is sodium formate, which is prepared by the reaction of carbon monoxide and sodium hydroxide under pressure and heat. Formic acid is used in leather manufacture to control pH, as well as in the acid dyeing of some leathers; in the latter case, causing the dye to fix on the leather. (306)
forming iron
See: BACK-MOLDING IRON.
forril
See: FOREL.
fortified size
A rosin acid chemically modified for use in lieu of, or together with, rosin size in improving the water resistance of paper. Most fortified sizes are reaction products of rosin with maleic anhydride.
forty-eightmo
A section consisting of 48 leaves (96 pages). In bookwork, using right angle folds, it is formed by folding a full sheet five times to form 32 leaves, and a half sheet four times to form 16 leaves, and insetting the latter. Its symbol is 48mo, or 48°. Also called "quadrigesimo-octavo." See also: BOOK SIZES.
forwarding
The processes or steps involved in binding a book. It has been variously defined as: 1) all of the binding processes following gathering, including covering; 2) the processes following sewing and up to covering; and 3) the processes following sewing and including covering. In edition binding, the term SHEETWORK is usually used in lieu of forwarding. (83, 123)
forwarding machine
The name some times given a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE.
forwarding press
See: FINISHING PRESS.
fossil resins
See: RESIN.
Fourdrinier machine
A papermaking machine invented by the Frenchman, Nicolas Louis Robert in 1798, developed in England by Brian Donkin for Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, but not placed into operation until 1804. The Fourdrinier machine and the CYLINDER MACHINE comprise the machines normally employed in the manufacture of all grades of paper and board. The Fourdrinier machine may be considered in four sections: wet end, press section, drier section, and calender section. (The supercalender is not a part of the papermaking machine, and, in fact, not all Fourdriniers have a calender section.) In the wet end, the pulp or stock, at a consistency or concentration of 0.2 to 1.0%, depending upon the grade and weight of the paper being manufactured, flows from a headbox through a slice onto a moving endless belt of wire cloth, the FOURDRINIER WIRE. The wire runs over a breast roll, which is under or adjacent to the headbox, over a series of tubes or table rolls (or, more recently, drainage blades) which maintain the working surface of the wire in a plane and aid in water removal. The tubes or rolls create a vacuum on the downstream side of the NIP. Similarly, the drainage blades create a vacuum on the downstream side where the wire leaves the blade surface, but also perform the function of a doctor blade on the upstream side. The wire then passes over a series of suction boxes, over the bottom couch roll (or suction couch roll), which drives the wire, and then down and back over various guide rolls and a stretch roll to the breast roll. The press section usually consists of two or more presses, whose function is to remove still more water from the web mechanically and to equalize the surface characteristics of the felt and wire sides. The wet web of paper is transferred from the wire to the felt at the couch roll, and is carried through the presses on the felts, the texture and character of which vary according to the grade of paper being made. The drier section consists of two or more tiers of driers, which are steam-heated cylinders. The web is held firmly against them by means of fabric drier felts. As the web passes from one drier to another, first the felt side and then the wire side are pressed against the heated surface of the drier. The web enters the drier train having a water content of approximately 65%, the bulk of which is evaporated in this section. Moisture removal may be further assisted by hot air blowing onto the sheets and in between the driers to effect removal of water vapor. Within the drier section and at a point at least half way along the drying curve, there is sometimes a breaker stack for use in imparting finish, as well as to facilitate drying. The stack generally consists of a pair of chilled iron and/or rubber-surfaced rolls. There may also be a size press located within the drier section, at a point where the moisture content of the paper has been reduced to approximately 5%. The calendar section consists of from one to three calender stacks with a reel device for winding the paper onto a reel as it leaves the machine. The calender finishes the paper, i.e., smooths it and imparts the desired finish, thickness, or gloss. Water, starch, wax emulsions, etc., may also be used to obtain additional finishes. The reel winds the finished paper, which may or may not undergo further processing. The wire, press section, drier section or sections, the calender stacks, and the reel are so driven that proper tension is maintained in the web of paper despite its elongation or shrinkage during passage through the machine. The overall speed of Fourdrinier machines is determined by the grade and weight of the paper being manufactured. (17, 60, 62, 72, 80, 98, 140)
Fourdrinier wire
An endless belt of woven wire used on the wet end of the FOURDRINIER MACHINE, and on which the web of paper is initially formed. The warp wire is generally of phosphor bronze and the shute (weft) wire of brass. In recent years, other metals and nonmetallic materials have been used. The number of warp wires per inch and the number of shute wires determine the mesh of the wire, the warp count varying from 8 to 225, the most common being 55, 60, 70, and 75. (17, 62, 67)
foxing
foxmarks
Stains, specks, spots and blotches in paper. The cause or causes of foxing, which usually occurs in machine-made paper of the late 18th and the 19th centuries, are not completely understood, but in all likelihood, it is fungoid in nature. Fungi, however, are not necessarily visible on foxed areas, nor does prolific growth necessarily imply excessive discoloration, and vice versa. This has been attributed partly to the fact that action may have been initiated before the examination of the paper, and partly, but less convincingly, to the so-called, action at a distance, which enables an agent to exert its effect at some distance from the object acted upon. Two significant differences between foxed and clean areas of a paper are the higher proportion of acid and iron in the former, although there does not seem to be any clear and definitive relationship between iron and foxing. Insofar as the acid is involved, it is not clear whether this is produced chemically or as a byproduct of the life function of the organisms present. Iron is attributed to impurities present in the paper, and this conclusion seems to be based largely on the fact that it is seldom found in papers produced before the introduction of papermaking equipment made of iron, e.g., the beater, and improvements in techniques, including bleaching and other forms of chemical treatment. But what role iron has in accelerating foxing, or causing a change from the invisible to visible state, has yet to be demonstrated. The other factor which controls foxing is relative humidity (R.H.), since these fungi will not develop if the R.H. falls below 75%. The fact that foxing generally starts from the edge of the leaf and spreads inward would seem to indicate that something in the atmosphere is relevant, although air borne organisms may be adequate as an explanation for this effect. In addition, it must still be explained how the center of the leaf is affected most in occasional instances. Perhaps the most logical explanation is that infection by air borne organisms (or by organisms that are natural to the paper) may occur if the conditions, and especially the R.H., are favorable, and that growth, resulting in the generation of fox marks, then occurs. The acid subsequently renders any iron in the paper soluble and therefore visible, with its color being intensified by the presence of organic matter. The effects of foxing may be reduced to a reasonable extent by use of a reducing agent, such as sodium borohydride (NaBH4) in a 0.5% solution by weight of the paper. This chemical has the advantage of not having to be washed out of the paper (and even depositing a small alkaline reserve—sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7)—in the paper). Foxing may be counteracted to an even greater extent by the use of a 0.1% (by weight of the paper) solution of an oxidizing agent such as calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2); however, this chemical is very difficult to wash out after treatment. Unaffected papers may be successfully protected from foxing by maintaining the R.H. of the storage area below 50%. See also: DENDRITIC GROWTHS. (43, 102, 143, 218)
frame
1. Ornamentation of a binding consisting of a simple hollow rectangle placed some distance from the edges of the cover of a book. It is to be distinguished from a BORDER (1). 2. Complete borders which are not, however, compartments, and which comprise enclosures made up of separate cuts or ornaments which show no evidence of having been carved or engraved for use together as a border, and also those made up of separate cast-type ornaments, commonly used in book decoration. (12, 69)
franklin guard
See: PHILADELPHIA PATENT-BACK GUARD.
free endpaper
See: FLY LEAF. See also: ENDPAPERS.
free water-soluble matter (in leather)
Soluble matter that can be removed from finely ground leather with very little washing. The free water solubles include gallic acid, quinol, catechol, etc. See also: COMBINED TANNIN IN LEATHER; COMBINED WATER-SOLUBLE MATTER (IN LEATHER). (363)
freezing point
The temperature at which the liquid and solid states of a substance are in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure. All adhesives used in archival work are affected by the freezing point, i.e., of water (32 F. or 0° C.). See also: GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE.
French cape levant
A type of MOROCCO prepared from the skin of a large Cape (South African) goat. It has a LEVANT grain, which is larger than the small pin-head grain of the usual morocco. (140)
French chalk
Soft, finely powdered magnesium silicate (MgH2(SiO3)4), which is dusted between the leaves of a book prior to gilding the edges so as to prevent the leaves from sticking during the gilding process, and also to remove grease stains from paper. (154)
French color
The third (or body) color dropped on the marbling size following the dropping of the VEIN COLORS. (217)
French corner
A method of reinforcing the corners of a book cover with leather or cloth, which is subsequently covered on the outside of the board but can just be seen at the corner on the inside of the board. (81)
French curl marble
A marble pattern that has been used for endpapers, particularly in France, since about 1660. The pattern is made on a marbling size of GUM TRAGACANTH, and the colors are dropped on in the same manner as with the NONPAREIL MARBLE. The curls are made with the use of a wooden frame constructed in the form of a small harrow, each parallel bar being set with as many tapering wooden pegs as there are curls required on the sheet to be marbled. The difficulty in executing this pattern is to "catch" the curls before they lose their shape. Many fine armorial bindings have the large red and blue pattern as linings. Padeloup and Derome both used this pattern for endpapers in books they bound for the French nobility. The French curl pattern remained popular, and continued to be used in Europe and England until about 1870. While it was highly valued for endpapers, it was rarely, if ever, used for cover papers on 17th and 18th century books. (97, 217)
French fillet
A FILLET (1) having three unevenly spaced bands on its circumference.
French finish
Books sewn on raised bands and completely undecorated except for gilt lettering. See also: FRENCH KID. (274)
French fold
A sheet of paper printed on one side only and folded over from left and right to form a "section" with uncut bolts. The inside of the fold is blank. (140, 355)
French gold
An alloyed GOLD LEAF, on the light or lemon-colored side. (126)
French guard
A term sometimes applied to the inner margin of an insert, turned over and folded around a section. (25)
French joint
See illustration A free-swinging joint produced by setting the board a slight distance (approximately 1/8 to 1/4 inch, depending on the size of the book) away from the backing shoulder. This type of joint allows thicker covering material to be used, while still allowing the covers to open easily. The French joint is one of the more notable characteristics of library binding. Also called "open joint." See also: CLOSED JOINT (94, 335)
French kid
French finish
A kidskin produced by either tawing or a vegetable tannage. As the name implies, it was produced originally in France and, because of its distinctive finish, the term was later applied to the same kind of leather produced elsewhere. (325)
French morocco
French levant morocco
A leather similar in appearance to MOROCCO but produced from sheepskin. The term is both inaccurate and misleading. (264)
French paring knife
See: PARING KNIFE.
French sewing
A method of sewing a book adapted by French bookbinders in the 16th century, which is essentially the same as the sewing employed in COPTIC BINDINGS. Unlike the traditional Western method of sewing on raised cords (See: FLEXIBLE SEWING), each section was sewn through the fold and attached to the next section by a loop similar to a KETTLE STITCH. Cords were not employed. The first and last sections were then laced tightly to the boards. In modern usage, French sewing is the same technique as done by a sewing machine, without the attachment of the boards. Modern French sewing is the principal method employed in edition binding. See also: MACHINE SEWING. (69, 89, 154)
French shell marble
A marble pattern developed in the latter part of the 18th century. and particularly identified with France. The pattern is formed by adding oil to the color, which then instead of spreading evenly, forms in drops with an outer circle or "shell" of a lighter shade. Brown and orange as the vein colors and a French (body) color of blue seem to have been the most frequently used colors. Shell papers are commonly found as endpapers of calf- and half-bindings of the early 19th century. Later, when the art of marbling deteriorated, the shell pattern was executed on very thin paper of poor quality and used for cheap trade bindings. The pattern was a popular for marbling the edges of books. (217, 236)
French standing press
A variation of the regular STANDING PRESS, the major difference being that the platen is lowered by turning a weighted wheel, which, when spun, exerts additional press by a kind of hammering action against two lugs. Except for the wheel a mechanism, it is made of wood, a while it does not tighten to the sa degree as the iron standing press. il considerably lighter and does not quire the substantial floor required the heavier iron press. (83, 236)
French varnish
A pale-colored mixture of shellac and oil. See: VARNISH.
fret
A continuous border pattern mad up of interlaced bands and produce by a fillet. Such patterns can be use for the decoration of either the leaves or covers of a book, or both. (335)
fringed foliage ornament
A bookbinding finishing tool in more-or-less the shape of a lozenge, and cut with a typic foliage design, the principal characteristic of which is a narrow fringe around the edge. (250)
frizzing
See notes on the electronic edition 1. The process of removing t fat cell layer prevalent in the corium of sheepskin. subsequent to splitting t skin and fleshing. When sheepskins a to be oil tanned, it is essential that t skins have clean, open surfaces, free from excess fat or grease. This allows the tanning oil to penetrate mo freely. 2. Skins limed for a prolonged period during which the entire supporting structure of ELASTIN in the grain layer is destroyed. 3. The process in leather manufacture of removing the grain layer of a skin by scraping, either with a knife or by machine. (61, 291, 306)
front
A term applied to horsehides principally to distinguish the forepart of the hide from the butt or hind portion which contains the SHELL from which CORDOVAN LEATHER is produced. A whole "front" represents about two-thirds of the area of the hide. (97)
front cover
See: UPPER COVER.
front edge
See: FORE EDGE.
frosted
A whitish condition or appearance of lettering or ornamentation in gold which can be caused by the leaf being pressed into the covering material with a tool that is too hot. (335)
frother
See: DEVIL.
frothing
The process of foaming glair so as to mix it thoroughly. The glair is not used in a frothed condition, but is allowed to subside, after which the clear glair is poured off.
f.t.p
Abbreviation of folded, trimmed, and packed, a term applied to books, pamphlets, etc., to indicate that the printed sheets have been folded, trimmed and packed for shipment, usually to a bookbinder. (274)
fugitive colors
Pigments and dyes that fade, especially those that lose color relatively quickly when exposed to natural light. Although still commonly used, the term is misleading because it implies that FADING represents the flight of color, rather than a chemical change. (233, 316)
full
A term sometimes applied to leather made from the unsplit, or full thickness, of a hide or skin, e.g., full calf.
full apron
A leaf the size of the leaves of a book to which a foldout, which must display the entire image beyond the closed book, is attached. (339)
full binding
A book which is covered entirely with any one material. In a strict sense, the term is applied only to leather bindings. Cf: HALF BINDING; QUARTER BINDING; THREE-QUARTER BINDING (1). (12)
full-bound ends and bands
full-bound ends and hubs
A form of the blankbook, generally full bound in sheepskin and flesher, with overbands. In this style, the leather covering does not extend beyond the head and tail of the boards but is turned in on the fore edges. See also: BANDING. (339)
full calf t.e.g
A term sometimes applied to a full calfskin binding with only the TOP EDGE GILT.
full chrome
full chrome tanned
Any leather tanned by the CHROME TANNING process. The adjective "full" is added to emphasize the fact that the leather has not been tanned by the semi-chrome or combination chrome process. (306)
full cloth
1. A book bound in a one-piece cloth cover. The term is not applied to library or edition bindings, i.e., case bindings. 2. A term sometimes applied to a hook bound in cloth, as opposed to a binding with a cloth spine and paper sides.
fuller's earth
See: ATTAPULGITE CLAY.
full gilt
1. A book having all three edges gilt, described as a.e.g., for all edges gilt. See also: GILT EDGES. 2. A book, usually leather bound, which is heavily tooled in gold on the spine, and with center and corner tools on the covers.
full grain
A leather having the original grain surface exposed by removal of the epidermis, and with none of the grain surface removed by BUFFING (1), SNUFFING, or SPLITTING (1). See also: CORRECTED GRAIN. (325)
full law binding
full law sheep
An obsolete style of binding, applied mainly to law books, and distinguished from other types of law binding in that the books were covered entirely in sheepskin, with lace-in boards and raised bands, and the traditional labels on the spine. See also: LAW CALF. (274)
full leather
A book covered entirely in leather, whether one piece or several pieces, as with inlays, onlays, etc. See also: FULL BINDING; HALF LEATHER; QUARTER LEATHER; THREE-QUARTER LEATHER.
full oil tanning
Any leather tanned by one of the oil processes. The adjective "full" is added to emphasize the fact that the leather has not been tanned by a COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE. (61)
full sheep
A sheepskin of full natural substance. It may be colored, embossed, or left in the natural tanned state, as is the case with BASIL, (274)
full weight
full thickness
A term sometimes applied to an unsplit skin, of natural thickness, but shaved down when necessary on the flesh side to a uniform thickness.
fumigation
The process of exposing archival materials to the vapor of a volatile substance, or with poisonous chemicals, such as thymol, methyl bromide (CH3Br), chloropicrin (CCl3NO2), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), ethylene dichloride (C2H4Cl2), or hydrogen cyanide (HCN), within a closed (and airtight) container, in order to destroy mold and/or insects. Room temperature is usually sufficient to vaporize the substances used in fumigation; however, in cases of severe or stubborn molds. heat in the range of 40 to 50° C. will increase the concentration of the vapor and increase its effectiveness. Where no special equipment, e.g., air-tight chambers, is available and the infestation is on a relatively small scale, fumigation ma be carried out by means of carbon disulfide (CS2) in an air-tight box. These methods, while more or less effective, do not confer lasting protection; therefore it may be necessary (assuming it is possible) to fumigate the areas in which the archival materials are stored. See also: FUNGI. (143, 198, 233)
fungi
A division or other major group of the lower plants which is often included in Thallophyta coordinate to Algae, that includes a varied assemblage of saprophytic and parasitic plants which lack chlorophyll, and which comprise the classes Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Fungi Imperfecti, and usually, in addition, the Myxomycetes and Schozomycetes. A large number of the spores of fungi is always present in the atmosphere, and while paper is not a particularly suitable medium to support the growth of molds and fungi, under favorable conditions, such as relatively high temperature and high relative humidity. paper will support the growth of these micro-organisms, some of which have a similar action on paper to that of dry rot fungus on wood. Conditions of storage which permit the prevalence of fungi may require the use of a FUNGICIDE to inhibit and/or destroy them. (198)
fungicide
A substance possessing the power of killing or preventing the growth of FUNGI. No single fungicide possesses all the desired properties of protection, as some of them are mutually exclusive, but it is possible to find one that possesses a range of properties suitable for use in virtually any specific case. Unfortunately, many fungicides are highly chlorinated substances and therefore cannot be washed out if lasting protection is to be conferred. Considerable care must be exercised, therefore, when they are used in or near paper. While stable enough for most normal uses, the typical fungicide may not be sufficiently stable when it is to re main in paper for decades, even centuries, as paper almost always contain impurities, e.g., iron, which may accelerate the normal slow breakdown of a fungicide. In the usual case, the product of this breakdown is hydrochloric acid (HCl), minute amounts of which are capable of destroying any normal paper; therefore, before using any chlorinated organic fungicide, it must be determined whether or not it is (reasonably) stable in the presence of traces of iron, copper, manganese, etc., and, at the same time sufficiently effective to be of practical value when used in low concentrations, e.g., 0.1% of the weight of the paper. See also: COPPER NAPHTHENATE; FOXING; MERCAPTOBENZTHIAZOLE (M.B.T.); MERCURIC CHLORIDE; PENTA-CHLOROPHENOL (P.C.P.) ; SALICYLANILIDE. (198)
furnish
The various combinations of materials in the stock suspension used in the manufacture of paper and board. They include the fibrous materials (pulp), i.e., the rag, chemical wood, mechanical wood, esparto, cotton fiber, linen, or other pulps, sizing materials, i.e., rosin, alum-rosin sizes, etc., various additives, e.g., wet strength agents. fillers of various types, e.g., retention aids, or loading materials, and dyes. (17, 58, 72)
fustic
A natural yellow dye extracted from the yellow Brazil wood (Morus tinctoria), and at one time used in the manufacture of yellow marbling color, and also for dyeing leather.
gain
See: YIELD.
gallic acid
A white, crystalline acid (C7H6O5), that occurs widely in plants both in the free form, as in GALLS and combined in tannins, from which it may be obtained by the action of molds or an alkali. It is used principally in the manufacture of pyrogallol tannins, dyes, and writing inks. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (235)
gallotannin
gallotannic acid
See: TANNIC ACID.
galls
The dried excrescences from certain trees and shrubs, especially Oak galls (Quercus infectoria), from the Near East and Eastern Europe; Chinese galls (Rhus semialata), from the Far East; Tamarisk galls, from several species of Tamarix, located from Morocco to India; and Pistacia galls, from several European and Indian species of Pistacia. All are relatively rich in tannin (36 to 60%) and are said to contain free gallic acid in addition to tannin, as well as an easily soluble form of ellagic acid. In general, the tannin is not homogeneous and is believed to be built up as a polygallol-ellagic acid. The galls result from the plants reaction to irritation caused by the larvae of various insects which lay eggs in the cambium area of the plants. Although galls were used extensively over a period of centuries in the manufacture of certain inks, and in the tanning of leather, they are little used today for tanning outside of the areas where they are collected, largely because of the expense involved in their collection. See also: IRON-GALL INK; VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175, 235, 363)
gambier
A tannin obtained from the leaves and stems of Uncaria gambir, a shrubby climber found in Indonesia and surrounding areas. It contains catechu-tannic acid (22 to 50%) and catechin (7 to 33%), as well as varying amounts of vegetable acids and their salts, sugar, starch, cellulose, wax, oil, and mineral matter. The catechin is not identical with that of CUTCH. It is one of the condensed tannins and has a relatively high pH value and total salts content. Used alone, gambier produces a rather spongy leather; however, when used in combination with other tannins, such as wattle extract or myrabolans, it is well suited for both heavy and light leathers. In England, it has been used mainly for the tannage of calf and kip skins. Also known as "catechu," "pale catechu," and "terra japonica." See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
gamma cellulose
See textual note That portion of a cellulosic material that remains in solution subsequent to neutralization of the alkaline solution obtained in the ALPHA CELLULOSE test. See also: BETA CELLULOSE. (17, 72)
gampi
A shrub, Wikstroemia canescens, indigenous to the mountain forests of central and southern Japan, the bast fibers of the inner bark of which are used in papermaking. (17)
gang stitching
An automatic or hand fed production line method of fastening leaves together with wire staples. See also: SIDE STITCHING.
gape
gaping
A condition in which the covers of a book are not parallel but are further apart at the fore edge than at the spine, i.e., the book does not close properly. Gaping, or yawning, as it is also called, may be caused by improper insertion of folded material without adequate stubbing; by improper covering or casing-in technique, in which the case is in effect too small for the text block or the covering material is drawn on too tightly; or, in the case of vellum books or bindings, by the absorption of moisture, which causes the vellum covers to warp. (99, 236)
gas black
A black pigment used in the manufacture of printing ink, and produced by burning gas with insufficient oxygen for complete combustion to take place. Thick soot is deposited on metal cylinders in much the same manner as LAMPBLACK from oil. Gas black is practically pure carbon. (140)
Gascon, Le
The name associated with a luxurious style of finishing introduced in France in the early 17th century. The "Le Gascon" style, known as POINTILLÉ, is made up of interlaced bands, enclosing geometrical compartments which are filled with innumerable gold dots, frequently elaborated into lines and curves of remarkable luster and elegance. Over the years many stories have arisen concerning "Le Gascon." One is that he worked as a bookbinder, or, more likely, as a gilder in the Eve's bindery, from which he took the style later to be called FANFARE STYLE (with its complicated geometrical framework) as the basis of his designs, but worked out all of the scrolls in fine dots instead of solid lines. While finishing tools had begun to become more finely cut with the Eves, they reached th pinnacle of delicacy and perfection with the work of this gilder or group of gilders. It has also been suggested that "Le Gascon" was the pseudonym of a famous binder, and it has been argued that the possibility exists that "Le Gascon" was employed by Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Despite the speculation, there are no records to indicate just who "the man" may have been. There are documents indicating that someone going by the pseudonym "Le Gascon" was, as early as 1622, producing the most splendid bindings of that time. It is perhaps only natural that attempts should be made to link this name with the finest of the early pointillé bindings, but to date no binding can be said to he the work of anyone by that name. Three very intricate pointillé bindings, signed by FLORIMOND BADIER, do exist, but since Badier did not even begin his apprenticeship until 1630, he cannot have been "Le Gascon." (124, 132, 154, 347, 373)
gatefold
An illustration, map, or other leaf larger in one dimension than the other leaves of the publication and which consequently must be folded, usually at the fore edge or head, to make it the same size as the other leaves. (156, 329)
gathering
1. The process of collecting, and arranging in proper order for binding, the printed sheets or sections of a publication, which, in the case of sections, takes place after folding. 2. The group of leaves formed by folding and combining the one or more sheets or half sheets which make up a section (signature). The sheet is the printer's unit, while the gathering is the binder's unit. In the case of the octavo, the gathering normally comprises one sheet folded three times; however, in larger or smaller volumes, it may consist of two or more sheets, or sheets and half sheets. 3. See: CATCH STITCH. See textual note (320, 335)
gathering machine
A machine used mainly in edition binding to collect and arrange in proper order the folded sheets, i.e., sections, of a book, preparatory to binding. The sections are placed in sequence in the pockets or hoppers of the machine and are released individually to a conveying mechanism. Once the machine is in full operation it produces a complete group of sections at every move, i.e., if the book consists of twelve sections, on the twelfth and every move thereafter the machine produces a complete gathering. Every time the conveying mechanism advances, a section is deposited on the conveying mechanism at every feeding station, the complete gathering being assembled at the last station. The total number of stations depends on the number of sections needed for the book being gathered. All gathering machines designed for uninterrupted operation have continuous feed and remove individual sections from the bottom of the respective piles, thereby making the top of the pile always accessible for the addition of sections. Three different systems are used in gathering machines: the swinging gathering arm system, the rotary drum system, and the planetary system. The swinging gathering arm system operates by pulling the section by suction along the fold edge from the pile, gripping it in jaws and dropping it onto the conveyer system. In the rotary drum system, the sections are removed by grippers built into the surface of the rotating drum. In the planetary system, the bottom of the pocket is a drum equipped with rotary vacuum suckers which roll the sections away from the bottom of the pile and transfers them to the grippers on a transfer cylinder, which, in turn deposits them on the conveyer system. If a section is omitted, or if two sections from the pocket are deposited on one pile, mechanical devices, called calipers, stop the machine and indicate the pocket where the mistake occurred. The calipers are also capable of detecting an incomplete section. The first gathering machine was introduced by Endicott D. Averell of the United States in 1875. This machine had feed problems which were eventually overcome by a machine developed by F. Wood in 1886. The period of greatest development of gathering machines was 1890 to 1903. (89, 182, 320)
gathering table
1. A long, narrow table, usually in the shape of a horseshoe, or oval, on which flat sheets or sections are laid in piles in proper order for gathering. 2. A rotating circular table around which gatherers sit and assemble sections as the table rotates, presenting consecutive sections. The variable speed table is rotated by an electric motor operated by a foot pedal. The rotating gathering table is usually used for short runs of edition bindings. (274, 320)
gauffered edges
gauffred gaufré goffered
The edges of a book, usually gilded, which have been decorated further by means of heated finishing tools or rolls which indent small repeating patterns. Gauffering is most successful on a book printed on hard paper and gilt solid. It may be done directly on the gold, or by laying a different colored gold over the first, and tooling over the top gold, leaving the pattern in the new gold impressed on the original metal. The effect of gauffering is sometimes enhanced by scraping away parts of the gold and then staining the white paper showing through. While this technique was used by a number of European bookbinders, it was especially associated with German bookbinding of the 16th century. The use of color on the edges of books bound in England was less frequent and more restrained. Plain gauffering was done well into the 17th century, usually on embroidered bindings, but appears to have declined sharply after 1650 or so. It was then revived and exploited from the end of the 18th century onwards, and was especially popular in the latter half of the 19th century, when it was found on elaborately bound devotional and other books. Almost all gauffering was done with pointillé tools, or, as in many examples, the designs were built up with repeated impressions of a large dot. Pointillé tools, as well as those cut in outline, produce delicate effects and are more easily impressed on a hard paper surface than are solid tools. The term comes from the French word for honeycomb, and also applies to the practice of crimping or fluting cloth with heated gauffering irons. See PLATE VI. (236, 335, 343)
g clamp
See: C CLAMP.
g.e
Abbreviation for GILT EDGES.
gel
1. A semisolid mass, resembling jelly, capable of deformation by heat or pressure. 2. A system of solid aggregates dispersed through a liquid carrier medium. 3. A non-flowing adhesive mass exhibiting strong cohesive forces having low shear strength. 4. See: GELATIN. (198, 306)
gelatin
A complex protein of the scleroprotein class, having a molecular weight varying from about 40,000 to 100,000. It occurs in bones and fibrous tissue in the form of its anhydride, collagen, which is converted into gelatin on boiling with dilute acids. Gelatin swells in cold water, but is insoluble in it. It dissolves in hot water and produces a very viscous solution, e.g., a solution containing 1% or more solidifies to a jelly upon cooling. Gelatin is particularly rich in glycene and lysine. It is manufactured from hides and bones, principally those of bovine animals, and differs from GLUE in its purity and in the care observed in its manufacture. It is used in the manufacture of glue and photographic film, and in the tub-sizing of paper. (143, 189)
gelation
The partial coagulation of a lyophilic sol which results in the formation of a GEL (1).
gelation time
The interval of time between the introduction of a catalyst into a liquid adhesive and gel formation. The term is used with reference to synthetic thermosetting resins. (233)
gel strength
The strength of a gel or jelly (such as gelatin or glue), often expressed as the weight in grams required to force a plunger into a test sample under specified conditions. The gel strength test is based on the fact that a solution containing lo or more of gelatin, when allowed to stand at a temperature of approximately 50° F., will form a firm jelly. If different glue solutions of identical concentration are permitted to chill or set, the quality of the glue will, in general, correspond to the consistency of the jelly formed. (185)
general job binding
A general type of binding in which odd jobs, either for the customer or the trade, are performed. Job binding of this type generally includes some library style binding and small runs of edition binding, i.e., runs under 1,500 copies. (131)
general office stationery binding
A class of binding involving the production of speciality items, including pads, blotters, files, and the like. This type of binding often takes place as a sideline in a binder specializing in STATIONERY BINDING. See also: PADDING. (343)
Gentile, Antonio
1519-1609
A Roman goldsmith who produced perhaps the most remarkable silver binding that has come down from the Renaissance. The cover, which protects an equally distinguished Renaissance manuscript, the Book of Hours, written by the scribe Francesco Monterchi, and illuminated by Giulio Clovio, for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, consists of wooden boards covered with parcel gilt silver that is very delicately worked in low relief and openwork. Each cover has a frame of foliage in relief against a pierced ground which is interrupted at intervals by masks, with fleurs-de-lis in the corners. The panel is divided into four sections filled with male and female figures whose bodies terminate in curving foliage. In the center a large oval depicts the annunciate angel on the upper cover and the Virgin Mary on the lower, both in relief. The spine of the binding is covered with a plate of silver decorated with foliate designs in low relief between four double raised bands. The doublures of silver are engraved with Farnese arms and the names of Cardinals Allesandro and Odoardo Farnese. (347)
German paring knife
See: PARING KNIFE.
ghatti gum
A gum obtained from the Indian sumac (Country sumac, or "dhawi," as it is called in India), Anogeissus latifolia, and used as a substitute for GUM ARABIC. (175)
gift binding
In the usual application, a leather binding produced for presentation, such as a retirement signature book. The term is also applied to that part of an edition run which is bound at the publisher's order for the gift market. (156)
gilder's tip
A camel-hair brush about 3 to 4 inches in width, and used to pick up strips of gold leaf flat on the tips of the hairs. A tip of long hairs is used to pick up whole leaves, while one with short hairs is used for cut pieces of leaf. A tip is not usually needed for metal leaf that is heavier and easier to handle than gold, but one may be necessary for silver leaf, in which case a special tip with double thickness of hairs is used. (233, 335)
gilder's tub
See: RUBBING-OFF CHEST.
gilding
The art or process of adhering thin metal leaf to a surface, e.g., the leather cover or edges of a book, so as to approximate the effect of solid or inlaid metal. Although the term is applied to the decoration of both covers and edges, it is more accurately used with reference to edges, and the term GOLD TOOLING for covers. Although the term "gilding" ultimately derives from a word for gold, it also designates the application of other leaf metal to a surface. Gold, silver, and palladium leaf are the most commonly used metals; however, gold is by far predominant. DUTCH GOLD and ALUMINUM LEAF are imitations of precious metals which give inferior effects and are not sufficiently permanent for archival work. On the other hand, they are superior in both effect and permanence to the so-called gold paint made with bronze power, to the silver paints made of aluminum powder, and to the various imitation gold foils made of various combinations of baser metals. See also: GILT EDGES; GILT EXTRA; GILT IN THE ROUND; GILT IN THE SQUARE; GILT MARBLED EDGES; GILT ON LANDSCAPES; ROUGH GILT. (83, 152, 161, 233, 236, 335, 343)
gilding a la antique
See: GAUFFERED EDGES.
gilding bench
See: FINISHING PRESS.
gilding boards
Finishing boards made of hardwood, and similar to BACKING BOARDS, except that the top edge is flat instead of beveled. They are used to secure the book firmly while the edges are being gilt. (335)
gilding powder
See: BLOCKING POWDER.
gilding press
gilder's press
A type of press consisting of two wooden blocks about 6 1/2 inches square and 4 or 5 feet long, fitted with two compression screws operating through brass chucks in each block, and operated by means of a bar inserted in the screw heads. The available DAYLIGHT of the press is generally sufficient to allow the pressing and gilding of the edges of several books at a time. (256, 264)
gilt after rounding
See: GILT IN THE ROUND.
gilt all around
A term sometimes applied to a book gilded on all three edges.
gilt edges
The edges of a book which have been trimmed, sized, primed with Armenian bole, covered with gold leaf, and burnished. In this process, the leaves of the book are fanned and dusted with French chalk and the book is then clamped in the gilding press. The edges are scraped and sanded to give as smooth a surface as possible, and the edges are again primed with bole and polished with a burnishing brush. A dilute solution of albumen or gelatin is applied and the gold leaf is laid on. The edges are then glazed with a burnisher, initially through paper and then directly on the edges. Different qualities of paper require slight variations of treatment. In general, the effect of gilt edges is superior if the gilding is done before the book is sewn. See: ROUGH GILT. Following gilding, the edges are sometimes tooled. See: GAUFFERED EDGES. The gilding of the edges of books probably originated in Italy, at about the same time that gold tooling was introduced in that country, or about 1470. The technique appears to have been in use in England by the 1530s. Aside from appearance, gilding the edges, or at least the head edge, serves the practical function of protecting the book from the incursion of dust. See also: EDGE GILDING MACHINE, (140, 236, 335)
gilt extra
A binding which has more gold tooling than is considered normal. Cf: OVERCHARGED.
gilt in the round
The fore edge of a book gilded after the book is sewn and rounded, giving the fore edge the appearance of a solid gilt surface. Cf: GILT IN THE SQUARE. See also: ROUGH GILT. (156)
gilt in the square
The fore edge of a book gilded after sewing but before rounding. This results in a white edge showing at the first and last sections after the book is subsequently rounded and backed. Cf: GILT IN THE ROUND. See also: ROUGH GILT. (156)
gilt marbled edges
The edges of a book that have been marbled, burnished, sized, gilded, and then burnished again. When it is properly done, the marble can be seen through the gold. In the usual case, however, the marbling is barely perceptible when the book is closed, but appears faintly when the leaves are fanned. This is because the marbling colors penetrate slightly into the paper giving the effect very much like the hidden FORE-EDGE PAINTING, although the two techniques are completely different. Gilt marbled edges is a French invention of the 17th century, and is usually attributed to (LE) GASCON. It is sometimes found on English bindings from about the middle of the 18th century, but it was never used extensively. (236, 241)
gilt on landscapes
A fore-edge decoration consisting of a scene painted on the fore edge, which is then gilded and burnished. Only the gilt edge is seen until the leaves are fanned, whereupon the painting may be seen beneath the gold. The name probably derives from the fact that most of these fore-edge paintings are of landscape scenes. The practice of gilding on landscapes dates from the second half of the 18th century. See also: EDWARDS OF HALIFAX; GILT MARBLED EDGES; FORE-EDGE PAINTING. (97, 241, 280)
gilt on red
See: RED UNDER GOLD EDGES.
gilt on the rough
See: ROUGH GILT.
gilt solid
See: GILT IN THE ROUND.
gilt top
See: TOP EDGE GILT.
girdle book
See illustration Girdle book. Breviarum, manuscript on paper, written in Southern Germany, probably in the monastery of Kastl, near Nürnberg, in the year 1454. Spencer Collection MS 39, New York Public Library (10.4 cm. by 7.5 cm.) A book which has an extra protective covering of soft leather made in such a manner that the book can be hung from the girdle or habit cord of a cleric and swung upward for reading while still attached to the girdle or cord. Doeskin and deerskin were frequently employed for this type of binding, which was used in the middle ages and early Renaissance, especially in Germany. Devotional books or didactic works, or professional reference books, e.g., law books, were most often bound in this manner, and the bindings were almost quite unpretentious. Very elegant bindings, however, were produced in velvet and brocade, to protect illuminated prayer books. Few intact girdle books have survived, as the overlapping leather was usually cut off for reuse when the need for protection had passed. Also called "utilitarian protective bindings." (156, 183, 347)
girdle calendar
A small medieval folding calendar, so made that it could be suspended from the girdle or habit cord of a cleric, or from the belt. Many had covers of stiff vellum sheathed in velvet, sometimes overcast at the edges with silk thread, and ornamented with balls and tassles. Such calendars generally showed the saints' days and other religious observances for each month, as well as various astrological tables. They were generally written on fold-out leaves of vellum. (347)
glacé goat
glazed goat glacé kid glazed kid
A vegetable or chrome tanned leather having a bright, smooth, glossy or glass-like grain finish obtained, according to the type of leather, by glazing, plating, ironing, or polishing. On the Continent of Europe, glace is a leather prepared by tawing the skin with a mixture of alum, salt, flour, and egg yolk. Glace leathers are sometimes used in bookbinding for title labels on a contrasting leather. (306, 363)
glacial acetic acid
A pure form of ACETIC ACID. It is a crystalline, corrosive substance that is miscible with water and alcohol. In solution it is a pungent, hygroscopic liquid and a good solvent.
glair
glaire
The preparation used to secure leaf metal to the covering material or edges of a book. It consists basically of egg white and vinegar, or, for the edges of a book, egg white and water. It may also be purchased in dry form (dry ALBUMEN) and then mixed with vinegar or water. Glair must have the property (and be of the quality) of melting immediately upon the application of heat and then setting quickly upon the removal of heat, so that the impression of the heated letter or finishing tool will melt the glair to permit it to hold the leaf solidly to the surface when the tool is removed. Two methods of applying glair are generally employed. If the slight gloss produced by the glair is not objectionable, the glair may be sponged over the entire surface to be tooled, and would in any case be applied over the entire edge of the book; however, if the gloss is objectionable, the design and/or lettering are tooled in blind and the glair is then applied to the blind impressions with a GILDER'S TIP. See also: BLOCKING POWDER; SHELLAC SIZE. (335, 339)
glair brush
An artists "ground" brush, 3/4 inch wide, and with soft bristles set in rubber and used in applying glair to the edges of a book to be gilded. (66)
glairing in
The process of applying GLAIR over the lettering or design that has been blinded in. (115)
glair pencil
A small brush, e.g., camel's hair brush, used to pencil glair directly into the blinded in impressions before laying on the gold leaf.
glass fibers
One of the more unusual man-made fibers being used commercially in the manufacture of special papers, although not at this time being used to make printing papers. Glass fibers are inert, or insensitive, to most external influences, and, in addition, are vermin proof, do not absorb moisture, or burn. Because of the physical nature of these fibers, the properties of glass fiber papers are unique and different from those of all cellulose papers; however, they do not bond together as do cellulose fibers, and must, therefore, be used in mixtures with cellulose fibers, or bonded with synthetic resins. The two basic types of glass fibers are the drawn glass filaments and the blown glass fibers. (47)
glassine paper
A supercalendered paper manufactured principally from chemical wood pulps which have been beaten to secure a high degree of stock hydration. Glassine paper is grease resistant, has a high resistance to the passage of air, and is almost impervious to the passage of water vapor. It is also smooth and transparent, or semi-transparent. It is made in white and various colors, and may also be made opaque by the addition of fillers. Basis weights range from 12 to 90 pounds (24 X 36—500), with the ordinary range being from 15 to 40 pounds. Glassine tape, which is the paper backed, with a water-soluble adhesive, is sometimes used to repair torn book leaves, although it will eventually turn yellow and may damage the paper. It is also used in lieu of cellulose acetate in the SUNDEX PROCESS of lamination. (17, 198, 324)
glass paper
1. A strong paper faced with powdered glass on one side and used in abrading or smoothing surfaces such as wood or leather, or to remove surface marks from paper. It is sometimes called sandpaper, although sandpaper is actually faced with sand or natural flint and not glass. 2. A paper produced from GLASS FIBERS. (237)
glass transition temperature
That temperature at which an adhesive loses its flexibility and becomes hard, inflexible, and "glasslike." An adhesive which reaches the "glass transition temperature" is subject to failure if flexed. Glass transition temperatures for adhesives vary greatly, from 105° C. (polymethyl methacrylate) to well below 0 ° C. If flexibility is required of the adhesive, the glass transition temperature can be lowered, either by means of plasticizers, or a polymer with a naturally low glass transition temperature.
glassy layer
The dense fibrous structure found in the butt or SHELL area of horsehide.
glazed
1. A paper having a high gloss or polish. The gloss is applied to the paper either during manufacture or afterwards, by such means as calendering, friction glazing, plating, etc. Glazed papers are used for book and cover papers, and the like. 2. Any surface finished with a high gloss, such as cloth, leather, or paper. See also: GLACÉ; GLAZED BOARD; GLAZING. (17)
glazed board
A MILLBOARD, or other type of board, that has been given a very smooth finish on the calenders. It was used in library binding when standing or hydraulic presses were used for the final pressing of books, its smoothness preventing it from imparting any markings to the covers of the books being pressed. (274)
glazed leather
See: GLACÉ.
glazed morocco
A MOROCCO leather which has had its grain flattened by a calendering process, such as GLAZING, as distinguished from CRUSHED MOROCCO.
glazing
The process of producing a bright, glossy, or glasslike finish on leather, paper, board, marbled or decorated papers, etc. Paper glazing may be done by means of calendering, or by applying wax over the surface of the paper and then passing heated iron over it. Leather is glazed, on the grain side, by subjecting it to the action of a non-rotating solid glass (or agate or other suitable material) cylinder drawn across the grain under very high pressure. (17, 335)
gloss
glossiness
The surface characteristic of a material which enables it to reflect light specularly and which causes it to appear shiny or lustrous. Gloss is measured at various angles of illumination, and, although it is subjective in nature, it is clearly associated with the light reflecting properties of a surface. (17)
gloster marble
A marble pattern very similar to the ANTIQUE MARBLE, except that instead of the spot being a flat color, i.e., a color mixed with gall and water alone, it calls for a blue stormont with no white beaten on afterward. (369)
glucose
A crystalline carbohydrate (C6H12O6) soluble in water, used as a substitute for the more expensive glycerine (glycerol) as a plasticizer for glue, and in making GLUCOSE-GLYCOL PASTE. See also: SORBITOL. (339)
glucose-glycol paste
A paste containing glucose, in the form of corn syrup, and diethylene glycol (C6H14O3), in the proportions of 35% original water, 10% diethylene glycol, 0.1% beta naphthol, 0.3% alum, 20% glucose, 19.6% flour, and 15% water from condensation of steam. The advantages of this paste are stated to be that it is suitable for use on pyroxylin impregnated book cloth and effectively reduces warpage of book covers. (339)
glue
An adhesive consisting of organic colloids of a complex protein structure obtained from animal materials such as bones and hides in meat packing and tanning industries. Glue contains two groups of proteins: chondrin, which accounts for its adhesive strength, and glutin, which contributes jelling strength. Animal glue is a protein derived from the simple hydrolysis of collagen, which is the principal protein constituent of animal hide, connective tissue and bones. Collagen, animal glue, and gelatin are very closely related as to protein and chemical composition. Gelatin is considered to be hydrolized collagen: C102H149O38N31 + H2O = C102H151O39N31 which gives an approximate chemical composition for glue of 51.29% carbon, 6.39% hydrogen, 24.13% oxygen, and 18.19% nitrogen. There may be minor variations in the composition of collagens from different sources, as well as in the composition of animal glues imparted by variations in processing techniques; however, the composition of glues and gelatins having widely varying case histories are still very similar. As a protein, animal glue is essentially composed of polyamides of certain alpha-amino acids. It is believed that these acids are not present in glue in the free state, but rather as residues which are joined together by the elimination of water to form long polypeptide chains. Glue is a polydisperse system containing mixtures of similar molecules of widely differing molecular weights. Because so wide a range of molecular weights is present, the molecular weight of glue is always an average, ranging from 20,000 to 250,000. Hide and bone glues make up the two major types of animal glue. Hide glue, which is by far the superior of the two, yields a fairly neutral pH in solution, usually in the range of 6.5 to 7.4, although wider variations are possible. Bone glue is generally acidic, having pH values of 5.8 to 6.3. A glue having a high acidity absorbs less water and tends to set more slowly than a glue having low acidity. A glue having a pH greater than 7.0 tends to foam, and has a shorter shelf life than a glue that is slightly acidic. Animal glues are soluble only in water, and are insoluble in oils, waxes, organic solvents, and absolute alcohol; however, they may be emulsified in water-oil or oil-water systems under proper conditions. One of the more interesting properties of animal glue solutions is their ability to pass from a liquid to a jelled state upon cooling, and then revert to the liquid state upon re-heating. The important properties of glue include its jelly strength or consistency (gel strength), viscosity, melting point, adhesive strength, tensile strength or elasticity, optical rotation, swelling capacity, rate of setting, foaming characteristics, reactions to grease (whether acid or alkaline), as well as appearance, odor, color and keeping characteristics. Of these, gell strength and viscosity are most often used for determining the grade of a particular glue. Regardless of the source of the protein, the glue manufacturing process consists essentially of washing the stock, crushing or shredding the bones or hides, soaking in a lime solution to eliminate hair and flesh, boiling to extract the gelatinous material, gelling, and, finally, drying. The resulting hard, brittle sheets of glue are then broken into pieces or flakes, or ground into powder. Glue as such is much too brittle for use in bookbinding; therefore a plasticizer, such as glycerin, or a less expensive substitute such as SORBITOL, often combined with glycols and tackifiers, are added to improve elasticity and resilience. These so-called flexible glues are usually prepared from high quality grades of hide glue, with the ratio of plasticizer(s) to dry glue controlling the degree of flexibility that is imparted. In addition, glue, being an organic material, is susceptible to mold; consequently preservatives, such as beta naphthol, or the safer phenols, e.g., p-phenyl phenol, are added to prevent mold and bacterial growth. Deodorants, such as terpinol, are also employed in commercial glues. The wide acceptance of glue as an adhesive stems from its unique ability to deposit a tacky viscous film from a warm water solution, which, upon cooling a few degrees, passes into a firm jelly state producing an immediate, moderately strong initial bond. Subsequent drying provides a permanent, strong, and resilient bond. The use of glue as an adhesive dates from earliest recorded times. Whoever discovered that a strong adhesive could be produced by cooking pieces of animal hide, or perhaps bone, in water has never been ascertained, but archeological discoveries indicate that the Egyptians used glue more than 4,000 years ago. The practical manufacture of glue can be traced back directly to 1690 in the Netherlands. Shortly thereafter, or about 1700, the English began making glue and established its manufacture as a permanent industry. Elijah Upjohn is considered by some authorities to have been the first to manufacture glue in the United States, in 1808. In addition to its use as an adhesive in bookbinding, glue is also used for gumming, for tub-sizing paper, and as a general adhesive in papermaking. The term "glue" is sometimes used loosely in a general sense as synonymous with "adhesive." (6, 102, 184, 185, 191, 196, 222, 233, 309, 335)
glue brush
A large, circular-shaped brush with long, heavy bristles set in rubber or a composition, and held by a ferrule; it is used for spreading glue over relatively large surfaces. Glue brushes range in diameter from about 1 3/4 to 2 1/2 inches. (66, 264)
glue line.
The "line" at which the paper and adhesive meet in an adhesive binding. The fibers of the paper flex at the "glue line," and may work their way loose at this point, regardless of the characteristics of the adhesive that is used. (198)
glue pot
A container, frequently made of copper and usually of a double boiler construction, in which glue is melted and kept at the proper temperature, which is in the range of 120 to 150° F. It is heated by gas, or, more often today, by electricity, either through a water jacket, or directly through insulated walls. It is usually controlled by a thermostat if heated by electricity. Control of temperature is important, as overheating of animal glue results in a loss of gell strength. (183, 335)
glue size
A size made of glue and soap mixed in water, in the proportions of 1 part glue, 1 part soap, and 30 parts water. It is used for resizing papers, and also in sizing endpapers and other sheets following marbling or coloring. (335)
gluing up
glue up glue off gluing off
1. The process of applying glue, or other adhesive, to the spine of a book following sewing. In edition binding, gluing up is a machine operation, but in library and hand binding it is generally done by hand. Usually, one of the polyvinyl adhesives, e.g., polyvinyl acetate, or a hot, flexible animal glue, or even a hot-melt adhesive is used. The major purpose of gluing up is to put the spine of the book in the proper flexible condition for the molding operations of rounding and backing. As these two processes were not introduced into bookbinding until the early part of the 16th century, gluing up was not done before that time. There are advantages in using a relatively slow drying adhesive in gluing up, as such an adhesive will remain tacky while the spine is shaped and the shoulders are set. 2. The operation of gluing the cloth or paper used for making covers or cases. (102, 236, 256, 335)
glycerol
glycerin
A sweet, colorless, syrupy, hygroscopic trihydroxy alcohol (C3H5(OH)3), that occurs combined as glycerides, and is used as a hygroscopic agent in glue (mainly animal glues) to enable it to remain relatively soft and flexible. Because it is hygroscopic, glycerol can actually absorb so much moisture that mold growths can develop unless an antiseptic is added along with the softening agent. The high cost of glycerol has led to the substitution of other softening agents, such as SORBITOL and diethylene glycol. (339)
goatskin
Leather manufactured from a number of varieties of goats, especially of the genus Capra. There is little or no supply of domestic goatskin in either England or the United States; what production there still is, mostly in England, is of skins imported from India, Pakistan, East and West Africa, South Africa, and some from Southern Europe and Central and South America. Supplies are also available from the Far East. The green skins are dry-salted, wet-salted, or simply dried, and then baled for shipment to tanneries. African skins frequently suffer from damage due to disease and improper drying and are usually not suitable for use as bookbinding leather; however, Nigerian goatskins are frequently among the finest available. Some goatskins are tanned, but generally not finished, in the country of origin, principally in India (East India (E.I.) tanned), but also small quantities in Africa. Most goatskin for use in bookbinding is vegetable tanned, but some skins are alum tawed. Some skins are even tanned by a combination vegetable and chrome process. Goatskin is tougher and more tightly fibered than sheepskin, has a hard-wearing grain, and, when properly tanned, can last for centuries. It colors beautifully and has a distinctive texture identified by ridges and furrows in the grain, and hair pits in groups all over the surface. Straight-grained goatskin is produced by rolling damp skins until all the furrows in the grain run in the same direction, while crushed goatskins have had the ridges flattened by ironing, rolling or plating. Although MOROCCO, the best known goatskin, was first produced by the Moors, possibly as early as the 11 th century or before, the use of goatskin in Europe did not become common until the first half of the 16th century, in Italy, and was not common in France until the second half of the 16th century. It was rarely used in England before 1600. Since its rise to ascendancy, however, it has been the traditional skin used in fine bookbinding. See also: LEATHER; LEVANT; NIGER. (83, 102, 164, 207, 236, 291, 335, 363)
goat skiver
The grain split of a goatskin. See: SKIVER. See also: BUFFING (1); FLESHER.
goat vellum
A "vellum" made from goatskin. Although VELLUM can be, and has been, produced from virtually every type of (relatively small) skin, it is traditionally made from the skin of a calf. (154)
goffered edges
See: GAUFFERED EDGES.
go home
A term sometimes applied to the proper and adequate adhesion of the PASTEDOWN in the joint of a cased book. (97)
gold
A very malleable, ductile, yellow trivalent and univalent metal (Au) that occurs chiefly in the free state, is unaffected by most chemicals but is attacked by chlorine and aqua regia, is hardened or changed in color for use in bookbinding and other art work by alloying with copper, silver, or other metals, and which has been used for centuries to illuminate manuscripts, as well as to letter and decorate leather and other bookbindings. See also: GILT EDGES; GOLD BLOCKING; GOLD LEAF; GOLD ROLL; GOLD TOOLING. (29, 102, 131, 161)
gold and silver bindings
Bookbindings having boards overlaid with thin panels of gold or silver, often in hammered relief, and sometimes inlaid with ivory, enamel, or jewels. Most of these bindings date from the 6th to the 13th centuries and were frequently executed for wealthy monasteries or churches to enclose their more valuable manuscripts. Very few have survived intact. (347)
gold and silver headband
A double HEADBAND made up of gold- and silver-colored threads. (152)
goldbeater's skin
The prepared outer coat of the caecum of the ox (or other cattle), which is the blind pouch or sac in which the large intestine begins. The gut is soaked in a dilute solution of potassium hydroxide, washed, stretched, beaten flat and thin, and treated chemically to prevent putrefaction. It is then stretched tightly and cemented together, back to back, leaving the clear, smooth, veinless inside of the caecum exposed. The SHODER and MOLD stages of GOLDBEATING are built up with these double skins of the ox. A mold of 1,000 pieces of goldbeater's skin requires the gut of about 400 oxen, and is only 1 inch thick when assembled. The pack is built up by interleaving the skins with leaves of gold. Goldbeater's skin is also used in the repair of holes and tears of vellum. (29)
goldbeater's tissue
An unbleached tissue paper, having a lint-free, hard surface, suitable for use as an interleaving tissue between leaves of the gold book. (17)
goldbeating
The art or process of reducing gold into extremely thin leaves. Goldbeating, which today is done almost entirely by mechanical devices, some of which are designed to duplicate the movement of the human arm, involves melting the gold into a bar, rolling it to a thickness of approximately 1/1,000 inch, and then beating it in three stages: the CUTCH (1), SHODER, and MOLD (2), followed by cutting and booking. When done by mechanical devices, goldbeating is simply a manufacturing process, but when done by hand it is an art. The origin of gold beating is unknown; however, it is known that the tombs of prominent Egyptians contained artifacts bearing gold leaf, although not of the quality and thinness produced today. See also: GOLD LEAF. (29)
gold blocking
The decorative effect produced by blocking the covers of books in gold. The practice began in the early 16th century, probably first with the use of wooden blocks, although metal blocks were also in use during the 16th century. Nearly all gold blocking of that time is very deeply impressed, possibly because of the use of soft pasteboards under the leather, and possibly because the blocking pressure was difficult to estimate accurately because the blocking had to be done in a screw press; if, under these circumstances, the block began to get too cool, very great pressure would have been required. As the impressions made were often very uneven in depth, such refinements as "make-ready" must have been un known to bookbinders of that time. Blind lines, forming a cross, were frequently marked on the covers as recently as the early ] 9th century to assist in positioning the block precisely. The area was coated with glair, the gold leaf was laid on, the heated block was then centered on the intersection of the lines (which can usually be seen extending beyond the gilt impression), and the platen of the press was lowered onto the cover. It is quite likely that the covers were sometimes first blinded in before being blocked in gold. See also: BLOCKING PRESS. (236)
gold book
A paper book, usually 3 3/4 inches square, containing 25 sheets of gold leaf interspersed between leaves of goldbeater's tissues which have been dusted with chalk.
gold cleaner
A pointed instrument of metal or wood used to clean out surplus gold after tooling.
gold cushion
A pad on which a sheet of gold leaf is placed for cutting the pieces required for tooling. It usually consists of a piece of wood padded with blotting paper, cotton wool, or the like, and covered with calfskin, flesh side out, and powdered with brick dust. A stiff piece of paper is sometimes attached to the rear edge, and run around the sides to enclose about one-third of the cushion, as a sort of windshield to protect the fragile leaves from air currents. (233, 335, 343)
gold edges
A term at one time applied to a book when the edges had been gilded. See: GILT EDGES. (274)
gold foil
See: BLOCKING FOIL.
gold ink
An ink of the color of gold, prepared by mixing gold-colored bronze powder in a size. (261)
gold knife
A flat-bladed knife, the blade of which is about 6 inches long and 3/4 inch wide. It has a smooth moderately sharp cutting edge on one or both sides. It is used to manipulate GOLD LEAF and to cut it to the required sizes and shapes. The knife must be sharp enough to cut the leaf with a single back-and-forth stroke but not so sharp as to cut the leather of the GOLD CUSHION. See also: GILDER'S TIP. (237)
gold leaf
A sheet of gold 3 1/4 inches square of an even thickness of 1/200,000 to 1/250,000 inch, and used in lettering and decorating bookbindings, and in other artistic work. The gold leaf used in bookbinding is generally 23 to 23 1/4 karat, the remaining 1 to 3/4 karat being silver and copper. The alloy depends on the finished color desired, ranging from a delicate red through yellow to pale green. Other types of leaf are also available, including lemon gold (18 1/2 karat) and pale gold (16 karat). Since these are alloyed with the less malleable silver, they are somewhat thicker and consequently easier to handle than the more nearly pure gold. Gold leaf is available in books of 25 leaves, interleaved with sheets of tissue dusted with chalk to prevent them from sticking together. It is also available in ribbon form (See: GOLD ROLL). Some gold leaf is made in double thickness, and is believed to be the equivalent of pre-19th century leaf, as old writings and handling instructions indicate a less fragile and more easily manipulated metal than the modern day product. Double thick leaf is especially useful when gilding the edges of books, as it gives a more "solid" effect than is obtainable by using gold leaf of the usual thickness. Gold leaf is the traditional metal used on books for lettering, edge gilding, and embellishment. In terms of beauty and durability it has never been equalled by any of the less expensive substitutes that have been available for more than a century. See also: DUTCH GOLD; GILT EDGES; GOLDBEATING; GOLD BLOCKING; GOLD TOOLING; SHELL GOLD. (29, 140, 236)
gold lifter
A shaped piece of wood, the flat under surface of which is covered with felt. It is used to pick up gold leaf. See also: GOLD NET FRAME. (115)
gold marble
A type of cover marble produced by breaking gold leaf into fragments on a piece of cloth, and rubbing the gold through the cloth onto the glaired covers of the book. (152, 241)
goldmark
Gold leaf prepared in a form which permits writing or decorating in gold without the use of heat. Goldmark is laid on leather, plastic, paper, etc., and inscribed with a stylus which produces a gold facsimile. Also called cold gold. See also: BLOCKING FOIL. (234)
gold net frame
A thin piece of cloth, usually nearly transparent, stretched on a frame that can be adjusted for tension on the cloth, and used to pick up gold leaf. See also: GOLD LIFTER. (29, 83)
gold powder
Pulverized gold leaf dispersed in an aqueous binder and used in the illumination of manuscripts. Gold powder is both difficult to obtain and more expensive than gold leaf. See also: SHELL GOLD. (233)
gold-powdered bindings
Leather bookbindings produced during the period of about 1560 to 1570, and usually tooled with a simple design and then given a "powdered" effect by means of miniscule gold dots and (sometimes) gold leaf rubbed into the leather. (347)
gold roll
GOLD LEAF carried on a transparent plastic tape. It is produced by plating the ribbon electrically in a vacuum chamber, and then applying an adhesive to the gold to make it adhere to the surface to which it is applied. Gold in roll form is used extensively in lettering library bindings and in the production of superior edition bindings. (276, 339)
gold rubber
Pure rubber soaked in turpentine, or treated with paraffin to make it absorbent, and used to remove superfluous gold leaf after tooling. Also called "bottle rubber." See also: GILDER'S TIP; RUBBING-OFF CHEST. (92, 264, 335)
gold size
See: BLOCKING POWDER; GLAIR; SHELLAC SIZE.
gold sprinkle
A 19th century technique of decorating the edges of a book in which pulverized gold leaf is sprinkled on the edges after they have been colored. See also: SPRINKLED EDGES. (97, 152, 241)
gold tip
See: GILDER'S TIP.
gold tooling
The art or process of lettering and/ or decorating the spine and covers of a book with GOLD LEAF (or, at times, other metals, e.g., platinum) impressed into the covering material, usually leather, by means of a heated letter, lettering pallet, or finishing tool. In the traditional method of gold tooling, the lettering or design is first blinded in, generally first through paper, and then again directly on the leather. The second working of the tool polishes the base of the impression and assists in creating a particular brilliance in the tooling. An adhesive (glair) is applied to the leather (either all over or directly into the blind impressions); strips of gold leaf are laid over the impressions and held in place temporarily with a thin film of vaseline or grease; and the gold is then pressed permanently into place with the heated tool When done properly, the affinity of the gold for leather is such that it will practically never come off; nor will it tarnish. Gold tooling must be ranked as one of the most important innovations in the history of bookbinding. Its origin are somewhat obscure, but it was probably introduced into Europe by way of Italy, and spread throughout the rest of Europe and England, eventually ar riving in America. There is some evidence that the technique may have been practiced in Morocco in the 13th century, but this is not conclusive. It has also been proposed that gold tooling was introduced into Italy by way of Persia (now Iran), where bookbinding and gilding flourished in the early decades of the 15th century. Very early gold tooling is difficult to evaluate because it is uncertain whether the gold was actually impressed into the leather with a (hot) tool, or was painted into blind impressions. The evidence offered by some bindings, i.e., the absence of impressions deep enough to indicate tooling, as well as what appear to be brush marks in the gold, would seem to indicate painting. Because of the elapsed time, however, which has led to the inevitable deterioration of the materials, it is difficult to differentiate between the two techniques. In any event, books were actually being tooled in gold in Venice no later than 1470, and possibly several years earlier. Gold-tooled leather bindings were not common in England before about 1530, and not in the United States until about 1669. The universal adoption of gold tooling was by no means immediate, and, in fact, blind tooling was still the predominant form of decoration until about 1580, or even 1600. See also: FINISHING (1). (141, 158, 225, 236, 347)
good seconds
A grade of leather skins which are superior to SECONDS but not as good as FIRSTS (1). "Good seconds" are somewhat less expensive than firsts, the flaws are less numerous than in seconds, and what flaws there are can often be avoided by careful cutting. (335)
Gosden, Thomas
1780-1840
An English bookbinder, book collector, bookseller, and publisher, known as the "sporting binder," because most of his bindings were of books devoted to sports. The peculiarity of his style and the reason he is remembered is that he used tools cut in the forms of fish, reels, rods, baskets, and sportsmen. (50, 339)
Gothic tabs
Identifying cloth tabs used with the cut-in or THUMB INDEX. The cloth tabs, each with identifying letter or letters, are glued to the first full leaf of each section devoted to that part of the alphabet. The name derives from the type style used by the firms supplying the tabs. Gothic (cloth) tabs are seldom used today. (264)
gótico-mudéjar style
A variation of the MUDÉJAR STYLE, i.e., mudéjar bindings influenced by Gothic techniques. Such bindings were executed from the 13th to the 15th centuries largely in the northeastern pat of Spain. The style has affinities with a class of early Italian bindings in which the plan of decoration is Gothic, but the execution is carried out with small tools similar to those used on mudéjar bindings. The bindings are usually of CORDOVAN LEATHER and most have wooden boards. (330)
gouffered edges
See: GAUFFERED EDGES.
gouge
See illustration A single-line finishing tool, used either for blind or gold tooling on the covers but not the spine of a book. It has a curved edge which forms a segment of a concentric circle. Gouges are generally made in sets of ten, and, if a series of concentric circles are drawn about 1/10 inch apart, the lines impressed by each succeeding gouge will be longer and flatter. So-called flat curved gouges are those derived from an even larger circle, and are therefore less curved than regular gouges. When tooling, the gouge is always sighted from the concave side. (161, 335)
gouge index
See: THUMB INDEX.
governmental style
An obsolete term for full leather bindings in law calf, sheep, or skiver. (256)
grade
Materials listed in an order (or distinguished from other, comparable materials) on the basis of use, appearance, quality, manufacturing, raw materials, performance, or a combination of these factors. Some "grades," such as of cloth, leather, and paper (or board), have been officially identified and described, while others are commonly recognized but are not officially defined. (17)
grain
1. In machine-made paper and board, the direction in which the majority of the fibers are oriented. See: MACHINE DIRECTION. 2. In leather, the term is used primarily to indicate the top or outer, i.e., hair side, layer of a hide or skin that has been split into two or more layers. A "grain layer," is just that portion of a skin that extends from the surface exposed by removal of hair or wool and epidermis, down to about the level of the hair or wool roots. It can also mean the follicle pattern visible on the outer surface of a skin after the hair or wool and epidermis have been removed. See also: GRAIN PATTERN. 3. In cloth, the "grain is the direction of the WARP threads. (143, 234, 291, 320, 363)
grain direction
See: MACHINE DIRECTION.
grained jute board
A jute-lined board printed with a grained effect. Rigid and resistant to scuffing, it is used mainly for inexpensive book covers or transfer-file boxes. (17)
grained leather
See: BOARDING (1); GRAINED UP.
grained skiver
A SKIVER produced from the flesh split of a sheepskin, dyed and embossed with a grain pattern.
grained up
The process or effect of raising the grain of a leather, usually by wetting and rubbing the grain side with the hand or a piece of cork, causing the grain to rise. Graining up is usually done after the leather has been pared; its purpose is to correct the flattened condition of the grain caused by the pressure of paring. "Grained up" usually refers to the process employed by the bookbinder and is not to be confused with BOARDING (1), which is a process employed by the leather manufacturer. (97)
graining
1. The process of applying an all-over pattern to cloth, either during manufacture or by rolling the cloth between embossing plates. 2. The process or result of printing various designs on paper or board to simulate various wood grains, marble, etc., generally for use as cover papers. 3. See: BOARDING (1). 4. See: EMBOSSING (1). (94, 164)
graining board
An instrument used for creasing hides and skins, or BOARDING (1), so as to produce certain grain effects in the leather. The implement consists of a curved board faced with a thick sheet of cork, and having a handle on the upper side. Effective use of the graining board calls for considerable pressure, as the greater the pressure exerted, the sharper the creases produced and the closer their spacing, both of which are considered desirable. Graining boards have been largely superseded by the boarding machine. (306)
graining brush
A decorator's brush, about 4 inches in width, used to obtain brush-grained effects on paste-grained endpapers. (335)
graining combs
Combs made of wood, metal, hard rubber, or plastic, or decorator's metal combs, used to produce grained effects on paste-grained endpapers. (231, 335)
graining plates
Plates used to impart a diced pattern to the leather covering of a book. They were invented by John Bohn, a German immigrant in England in about 1796. Early plates were made of brass or wood and were able to impart a deeper impression than that obtained by calendering. Later plates were made of metal. As the lines were placed diagonally in one direction only, two impressions were required to produce the diced effect. They were also superior to calendering in that the dicing could be done following covering. The simple graining plates for dicing soon evolved into more elaborate plates for impressing fish scales, squares, etc. One reason they were popular was their capability for covering blemishes in the leather. 236)
grain layer
That portion of a hide or skin extending from the surface exposed by the removal of the hair or wool and epidermis down to about the level of the hair or wool roots. It is the layer which contains the hair follicles, sudoriferous and sebaceous glands, etc., i.e., the thermostat layer. (363)
grain long
A term sometimes used in paper manufacture to indicate that the grain or MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper is parallel to the larger dimension of the sheet. Cf: GRAIN SHORT. (125)
grain pattern
The design on the outer surface of leather produced by the arrangement of the hair follicles and pores, characteristic of the species and age of the animals from which the leather is produced. In general, the younger the animal the finer the grain structure. The skin of the female of the species is usually of a finer grain than the male. The less hair or wool there is on the animal the tougher and stronger the leather, especially the grain surface. Because of their durability, uniformity, beauty, and form, grain patterns represent one of the most appealing and highly prized characteristics of leather, and it is for this reason that imitation grains are often embossed on inferior quality leathers and even printed or embossed on other materials, such as cloth and plastic. (291, 363)
grain short
A term sometimes used in paper manufacture to indicate that the grain or MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper is parallel to the shorter dimension of the sheet. Cf: GRAIN LONG. (125)
grain side
The outer, or hair side of a hide or skin. See: GRAIN (2); GRAIN PATTERN.
grain split
The outer, or hair layer of a hide or skin that has been split into two or more layers.
grainy
1. An exaggerated, delicate mosaic pattern of extremely minute depressions in a hide or skin extending inward from the bellies, and consisting actually of the pattern of the blood vessels of the skin projected onto the grain surface. 2. Slight variations in the surface appearance of a paper caused by several factors, including the impressions of wires and felts of the papermaking machine, irregular distribution of color, uneven shrinkage during drying, etc. (17, 363)
grainy edges
A rough surface of a paper which sometimes extends for varying distances in from the edge of a sheet as formed and dried on the papermaking machine. (17)
grangerized
See: EXTRA-ILLUSTRATED.
granite board
Any board with an embossed pattern or design resembling granite and used for decorative book covers.
granite marble
A marble pattern produced by sprinkling black (lampblack) coloring in very fine drops over the entire surface of the sheet several times. followed by brown coloring. The paper is then embossed and glaired. The effect is supposed to resemble granite. (152)
grass
See: ESPARTO (GRASS).
grass cloth
A lustrous, plain, usually loosely woven fabric manufactured chiefly in the Orient from various grasses and other vegetable fibers, especially RAMIE, and used for lining the spines of books, particularly in the area of manufacture. (142)
gray cloth
gray goods
A fabric which has not been bleached, dyed or otherwise finished. It is the ha.se fabric used in the manufacture of BOOK CLOTH.
greaseproof
A descriptive term applied to a book cloth treated in such a manner that it will permit no penetration by oleic acid within a period of 5 minutes, as determined by the RING TEST. (341)
Great Omar
A binding of Vedder's illustrated edition of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, measuring 16 by 13 inches, and decorated according to the designs of the English bookbinder Francis Sangorski. The Great Omar was covered in green levant morocco, and had the same green leather doublures. while brown leather was used for the flyleaves. All were decorated in a most lavish manner, each to a different design, making a total of six designs. In addition to the extremely elaborate gold tooling, there were numerous sunken panels, thousands of colored inlays, as well as some 1,050 jewels, including garnets, olivines, rubies, topazes, and turquoises. The decoration of the lower cover had as its central feature a model of a Persian mandolin made of mahogany, inlaid with silver, satinwood, and ebony. The magnificent binding, which took nearly 2 years to complete, was probably the most lavishly decorated bookbinding ever produced. The Great Omar was the last of a series of Omars executed by the firm of Sangorski and Sutcliffe, of London. Unfortunately, only reproductions of the binding, also produced by Sangorski and Sutcliffe, now exist, the original having been lost in the sinking of the Titanic, and a later copy being destroyed in the Second World War. (236, 319)
Greek style
A 15th and 16th century style of blind tooled binding in which the books had spines rising at head and tail to protect the thick double headbands which were striped in bright red and blue. The thick wooden boards had grooved edges, and clasp straps of triple braided thongs fastened to pins set in the grooves. Greek texts, or even translations from the Greek, were hound in this manner in France and Italy, probably by Greek craftsmen. (156. 347)
green
1. An uncured hide or skin, usually one just removed from the animal. 2. An incompletely dried sheet of paper or board.
green agate marble
A cover marble consisting of black sprinkled in large drops; these unite and are followed at regular intervals by green, which is spread on the cover to unite with the black. (, 152)
green earth
A natural earth similar in composition to the mineral glauconite. It is used mainly as a base for the precipitation of malachite green dyestuff to form the pigment known as lime green.
green fleshing
A method of applying mechanical action to hides or skins after they have been soaked to a softened condition. It is done by scraping the flesh side with a curved blade on the beam, or, in the usual manner today, in a fleshing machine. In the tanning of heavy leather, FLESHING frequently takes place following liming and unhairing; however, green fleshing, which takes place before liming, has several advantages: 1) it provides a more uniform grain surface for unhairing and helps prevent grain damage during machine unhairing; 2) the physical compression by both the feed rolls and fleshing cylinder materially prevent excessive plumping of the softened hide fibers during subsequent liming; 3) a comparatively thick flesh, particularly one of a fatty nature, reduces soaking, bactericidal, and liming effects; and 4) the formation of calcium soaps during liming and oily matter during tanning is held to a minimum, particularly when poor or insufficient curing has resulted in the presence of free fatty acids in the fatty tissue. Also called "soak fleshing." (306)
green porphyry marble
A cover marble executed by sprinkling green in very fine drops, allowing the color to spread and dry between sprinklings. To form a more elegant vein the cover is first sprinkled with weak black followed by the green and, when this is dry, by a fine red. (152)
green salted
A hide or skin that has been cured with salt. Many skins are exported from the Indian Subcontinent in the "green salted state." See also: BRINING; WET-SALTING. (248)
green salting
See: WET-SALTING.
green vitroil
See: FERROUS SULFATE.
grid
A decorative ornament often used on heads-in-medallions rolls. It consists essentially of two horizontal lines with a few short vertical bars in between, with foliage on the sides. (250)
Grimaldi, Giovanni Battista
The bibliophile whose collection was long considered to have been brought together by Demetrio Canevari, physician to Pope Urban VIII. The bindings were produced by Venetian bookbinders, probably between 1535 and 1560, and were subsequently inherited by Canevari. The bindings feature fine-figured borders of gold-tooled decoration, with painted oval cameos of Apollo driving his chariot drawn by two horses toward Pegasus. There are two varieties of this elliptical cameo stamp, with the greater diameter of the larger being perpendicular and that of the smaller horizontal. On some of the bindings the title appears on both covers in a cartouche above the stamp. See also: CAMEO BINDINGS. (168, 347)
Grolieresque
A term generally applied to the style of binding associated with the name Grolier. See: JEAN GROLIER. In many respects it is an ideal style for tooling in gold, depending for its effect on graceful geometrical strapwork. See also: MAIOLI style. (156, 286)
Grolier, Jean
1479-1565
The 16th century bibliophile, Jean Grolier de Servin, vicomte d'aquisy. Although Jean Grolier is regarded correctly as a French bibliophile, the bindings executed for him were essentially Italian in their principles of design. Grolier possessed one of the finest private libraries of his time (and possibly any other time), consisting of some 3,000 volumes contained within bindings of superlative richness and beauty. Grolier lived in Italy, with only a few interruptions, between 1510 and about 1525, and, while there, became the friend of the celebrated printer, Aldus Manutius. It is said that in appreciation of Grolier's friendship and financial assistance, Aldus printed several copies on vellum or large paper for Grolier, several of which were dedicated to him. Grolier is believed to have patronized several binders over the years he collected, including Claude de Picques, and the so-called fleur-de-lis and cupid's bow binders. The books which Grolier acquired in his early years (including many of his Aldine volumes) possess the distinguishing characteristics of Italian binding of the time he lived in Italy. The Grolier bindings, the designs of which have been imitated more than those of any other style, with the possible exception of the pointillé bindings, are usually classified into two distinct groups: 1) those executed expressly for him; and 2) those bound before he acquired them either through purchase or gift. Although the bindings executed for Grolier are distinctly similar in style, they vary considerably in their ornamentation. The designs generally consist of a geometrical pattern, occasionally colored, combined with arabesque work, which is solid, azured, or only outlined. On some of his bindings, however, the geometrical pattern has no arabesques, while in others the arabesque work is found without the geometrical design. Nearly all of the books of the first class, as well as many of those of the second, include the altruistic inscription, lo. Grolierii et Amicorvm (of Jean Grolier and his friends), usually at the tail edge of the upper cover, which he apparently borrowed from his contemporary, Mahieu. Both covers of most of Grolier's bindings feature a central compartment, usually containing the title of the book on the upper cover, and the expression Portia Mea, Domine, Sit in Terra Vivetivm (Let my portion, O Lord. be in the land of the living), on the lower cover. Other legends also at times appear on his bindings. Grolier's signature, or his motto, with several slight variations, is frequently found in his own hand inside the books he collected before about 1536. This was usually written at the back. There are two distinct features to Grolier's bindings which were not consistently practiced by other contemporary collectors: 1) the pastedowns are vellum, followed by two conjugate white pa?er flyleaves, which are followed by a vellum leaf conjugate with the pastedown, which is followed by a final conjugate pair of paper leaves; and 2) the edges are gilt but not gauffered or otherwise further embellished. See PLATE IV. (59, 132, 141, 245, 273, 279, 285, 347)
grooves
1. The V-shaped or rectangular incisions made on the outside of the boards connecting the holes made for LACING-IN with the edges of the board. The use of grooves in craft bookbinding was not common until the end of the 18th century, which is somewhat surprising because it is an important technique, in that, while the weakening effect on the board is only slight, it permits thick cords to be laced-in without unattractive lumps being seen under the covering leather. In the 19th century, however, the insistence upon neatness and ultra-fine finish led many bookbinders to reduce the thickness of the slips greatly before lacing-in, even though grooves were still cut. Since lacing-in of the cords is one of the major differences between a cased and a bound book, the reduction of cord thickness reduces the strength considerably. Douglass Cockerell was the first, or one of the first, craftsmen to show that the slight projection of the cords was acceptable not only because it showed that the book was solidly constructed, but because the lumps actually provided a starting point for the decoration of the book. Grooves in the shape of an inverted V, ending with a hole to take the cord to the inside of the board is the usual method of cutting; however, the tendency today is to cut a groove ending in a rectangular slot at right angles to the groove. 2. The depression along the binding edge of the upper and lower covers of a book. See: JOINT (1). 3. The space between the board and spine of a book having an open joint. See: FRENCH JOINT. See also: CLOSED JOINT. 4. Cuts made in the spine of a text block in the shape of an inverted V, into which cords are recessed when sewing single leaves. See also: KERF. (83, 196, 236)
grosgrain
A firm, plain-weave fabric. generally with a silk or rayon warp and a heavy cotton filling that forms pronounced cross ribs. It is sometimes used as a covering material for books. (25)
ground substance
An amorphous background material in which the cells and fibers of collagen are embedded. It is a colloidal substance in the form of a gel, and has the capacity of binding varying amounts of water. The hound water serves as a medium for the diffusion of gases and metabolic substances from the blood vessels to the cells of the tissues. and vice versa, of the living animal. A certain amount of ground substance is removed during the leather manufacturing process. (26, 291)
groundwood free paper
A paper or board that contains no mechanical wood pulp. "Groundwood free" is actually interpreted to mean that the paper or board contains less than 5% mechanical wood pulp. (17)
groundwood printing papers
Papers of the same general type as BOOK PAPERS. As the name suggests, they contain a proportion of mechanical wood pulp, but it is a pulp carefully prepared, and therefore clean and bright. The use of mechanical pulp for this type of printing paper improves important characteristics of the paper, such as retention of loadings, high bulk, greater opacity for the basis weight, improved softness, and a smoother finish. They are, however, inferior to the chemical wood pulp papers in both permanency and brightness. They are made in a number of furnishes ranging from approximately 75% mechanical pulp to about 20 to 25% mechanical, the balance being chemical pulp. They are sized, finished, colored, loaded, and coated in various ways to make them suitable for virtually any printing process. Their life expectancy, however, even under good storage conditions, is probably under 25 years. (17, 72, 324)
groundwood pulp
See: MECHANICAL WOOD PULP.
growing flower
A form of ornamentation of a ROLL (1), consisting of a flattened elliptical base with a stem and leaves ending in two flowers, the tops of which curve outwards. (250)
grubby hides
Hides that have been damaged by grubs of the warble fly. See also: PEPPER BOXES; WARBLES.
g.t.
g.t.e.
Abbreviation for gilt top, or gilt top edge. See: TOP EDGE GILT.
guard
1. A strip of cloth or paper pasted around or into a section of a book so as to reinforce the paper and prevent the sewing thread from tearing through. This type of repair is sometimes required after a book has been pulled for rebinding, either because the folds of the section were torn because the sewing thread pulled through the paper, or the outer fold was damaged during the removal of the old glue on the spine. A guard may also be required for leaves or plates that have become frayed or detached at the inner edge. The material used for the guard must be strong yet thin so as not to cause undue swelling in the spine of the book. When paper is used for the guard, its MACHINE DIRECTION should run from head to tail of the section. 2. A strip of cloth or paper on which an illustration, map, etc., may be attached and sewn through with the section, thus allowing free flexing. Four-page (two folios) plate units are also strengthened in this manner before sewing. A leaf to be positioned at t he beginning or end of a section is guarded on the inside, while an interior leaf is guarded on the outside. In both cases the sewing thread passes through the center of the guard. See also: COMPENSATION GUARD; CONTINUOUS GUARD; GUARDED IN; PLATE ATTACHMENT; REVERSED V-GUARD; THROW OUT. 3. See: STUB (1). (83, 107, 161, 335)
guard book
See illustration A book containing compensation guards equal to the anticipated thickness of the additional matter to be added at a later time. The guards are sewn with the book and are intended to prevent gaping of the boards or damage to the spine when the book is filled with photographs, clippings, etc. Also called "stub book." (82, 343)
guarded endpaper
A section which has had a linen GUARD (1) wrapped around both it and the endpaper so as to effectively make one unit of the two. Its purpose is to provide additional strength at the point where greatest flexing occurs, which is between the endpaper and the first leaf of the section. The guard is usually attached so that not more than 3/16 inch of the linen appears on the exposed leaf of the section, while generally 1 1/4 inches in on the unexposed side of the endpaper. In a case binding the guard is tipped to both the section and the endpaper, but in a handbound book, because both section and endpaper are sewn (through the linen), the guard is tipped only to the section. In case binding the guard also eliminates the necessity of tipping the endpaper to the first leaf of the section and thus eliminates drag on the leaf. In a hand-bound book (where the endpaper is not tipped to the section) one guard strengthens the folds of both the endpaper and section; were two guards to be used instead of the one, the guard would appear on the first printed page of the book.
guarded in
Plates which are inserted into a book without being tipped to one of the leaves of the book. The paper area of the plate is wider than the leaves of the book, the projecting part being wrapped around the fold of the section. A narrow strip of paper appears elsewhere in the book as a consequence.
guarding
The operation of attaching a GUARD (2) for the purpose of providing a hinge for a map, illustration, etc., to strengthen the fold between two conjugate leaves, or to assist in relieving the strain of the endpaper caused by the opening of the book. See: GUARDED ENDPAPER; GUARDED IN; GUARDING IN PAIRS; PLATE ATTACHMENT. (335, 343)
guarding in pairs
A method of securing two plates to one GUARD (1). While the positioning of the guard within the section may or may not allow for either or both sides to be located near the accompanying text material, guarding in this manner may help alleviate some of the swelling caused by the thickness of the material used for the guards. (307, 335)
guard sheet
See: BARRIER SHEET.
guide boards
A technique employed by some bookbinders when trimming with the plow, in which two binder's boards, each about 1/2 inch larger than the leaves of the book, are tipped on, one to the front endpaper with its top even with the trimming line at the head of the text block, and the second tipped to the back endpaper with the edge even with the trimming line at the tail. Guide boards are used to control the squareness of the book in the lying press and to prevent crushing of the shoulders of the text block when the press is closed on it. (196)
guide of fair value
A statement drawn up in 1948 by the Joint Committee of the American Library Association and the Library Binding Institute, establishing "fair" prices for library binding, restoration of valuable books, and the transportation of library materials. The statement is now obsolete. (131)
guide word
See: CATCHWORD.
guild of contemporary bookbinders
See: DESIGNER BOOKBINDERS.
guilloche
A design used in finishing a book, consisting of two or more bands intertwining and forming a continuous series, leaving circular openings filled with round devices. (94, 261)
guillotine
A machine used for cutting large numbers of sheets of paper and board, and also in library binding for trimming the edges of books. The typical guillotine, which is designed to cut comparatively large edge lengths, is a single-knife cutter, in which a heavy blade descends between vertical runners. The principal parts of the guillotine are a table on which the material to be cut is piled; a movable back gauge (called the "back fence" in Europe), perpendicular to the table, against which the back edge of the pile rests; a clamp (or press beam) which compresses and secures the front edge of the pile, i.e., the edge to be cut; and a knife (or cutter) fixed in a cutting beam which descends immediately in front of the clamp, cutting through the pile, and stopping at a cutting stick set into the table. Pressure can be applied by hand with a screw spindle, but electric power is usual on both large and small machines. All guillotines built for the printing and binding trades permit the squaring of a sheet, or section, provided that none of the dimensions exceeds the cutting length of the machine. Generally, on standard models, the size of the material to be placed on the table must not exceed its cutting length in either direction; however, some of the larger cutters are provided with longer back tables as optional equipment. Some cutters allow for trimming the shorter dimensions or splitting sheets. One of the most important features on some modern cutters is automatic spacing, which causes the back gauge to move a pre-determined distance following each cut. Modern electronic guillotines have movements which are actuated by a series of relays and contactors brought into operation through the medium of a number of thyratrons, tubes, and photoelectric eye units. All operations are mechanical, and are set into motion by push buttons or by tripping micro switches which control the electronic circuit and, therefore, the cutter. Modern guillotines also have safety devices which reduce the element of risk, assuming that the proper precautions are taken and the mechanism is not altered. Controls are designed to require that both hands be used to activate the final clamp pressure and cutting operations, and the machines are designed to stop the knife at the top of the stroke without possibility of a repeat cut. Guillotines came into use in the late 1830s, when, in 1837, Thirault built a model with a fixed blade. In 1844 and 1852 Guillaume Massiquot patented machines similar to those in use today. Since the middle of the 19th century considerable improvements have been made by Fomm and Krause of Germany, Furnival in England, and Oswego and Seybold in the United States. (89, 145, 236, 320)
guinea edge
Ornamentation of the edges of the covers of a book produced by means of a fillet which has an engraved pattern resembling the edge of an old gold guinea. (94)
gum
Any of a number of colloidal polysaccharides of high molecular weight. which can be dispersed in either cold or hot water to produce various mixtures or solutions, and which display good flow and tack characteristics. See also: GHATTI GUM; GUM ARABIC; GUM SANDARAC; GUM TRAGACANTH; KARAYA GUM. (175, 309)
gum arabic
A water-soluble gum obtained from several species of the acacia tree, especially Acacia senegal and A. arabica, and used in the manufacture of adhesives and ink, and as a binding medium for marbling colors. Historically, gum arabic was used to increase the viscosity of ink, or to make it flow well, to prevent it from feathering, and to suspend the coloring matter. It was particularly important in the days of the reed or quill pen. Solutions of gum arabic have long been used as adhesives for paper, but they are little used today. Gum arabic adhesives produce clear, easy brushing solutions which have no marked initial set but which will pass through a tacky stage on drying. The properties for which they are valued include ready solution in water following drying, readiness for immediate use, cleanliness and ease of application. Gum arabic adhesives, however, are generally too moisture sensitive for use in archival work. Also called "acacia gum." (198)
gum dragon
gum elect
See: GUM TRAGACANTH.
gum hog
gum hogg
See: KARAYA GUM.
gum juniper
See: GUM SANDARAC.
gummed cloth tapes
Gummed cloth or transparent adhesive paper used for mending torn book leaves, reinforcing joints, tipping in, guarding, and the like, usually in in-house repair procedures. Such tapes can be difficult to remove and frequently cause extensive damage to the paper when they are removed.
gummed paper
gummed flat paper
A strong, hard-sized, machine-finished, English finish, supercalendered, or coated paper, which is gummed on one side and used for book labels, embossed seals, etc. The paper is made in white, colored, or metallic finishes. Usual basis weight is from 38 to 45 pounds (24 X 36—500). Different adhesives are used for gummed paper depending upon the surface to which the paper is to adhere. They should be flat and noncurling. (17, 139)
gum sandarac
A brittle resin obtained from the African sandarac tree, Tetraclinis articulata, in the form of yellowish, faintly aromatic, opaque tears and broken cylindrical pieces. It is soluble in alcohol. It is used in the manufacture of spirit varnishes, and, when dissolved in oil, to make cooked varnishes. It is also used in powdered form to clean vellum and to prepare it for writing purposes. Its most outstanding property is its hardness. Also called "gum juniper." See also: POUNCE (1); PUMICE. (233)
gum stripping tapes
See: BINDERY TAPES.
gum tragacanth
A gum obtained as a dried exudate from various Asiatic and Eastern European plants of the genus Astragalus, especially A. gummifer. It consists of bassorin and tragacanthin. and swells in water to form a gel. Gum tragacanth has been used extensively in the preparation of marbling size, and is still used by some marblers. Also called "gum dragon" and "gum elect." (235, 236, 335)
gut
The cured and finished strips of the intestines of sheep, calves, or oxen. The gut of the sheep or calf is used as the core of the HEADBAND, while that of the ox is used in the manufacture of GOLDBEATER'S SKIN. (335)
gutta-percha binding
See: CAOUTCHOUC BINDING.
gutter
The adjoining inner margins of two facing printed pages, i.e., the margin at the sewn fold of a section.
guttering
The ridges that sometimes occur (as a result of use) along the spine of a tight-back binding. gutter margin. See: INNER MARGIN.
gypsum
The naturally occurring hydrous form of calcium sulfate (Ca2SO4 . 2H2O), which is used as a filler for printing papers, and serves to fill the spaces between the paper fibers, thereby increasing opacity and smoothness. It is also used in the manufacture of GOLD LEAF. Also called puritan filler" and "terra alba." See also: BRIME. (17, 29, 343)
hair
The coalesced horny cells, which contain the protein keratin along with 0.75 to 2.0% mineral salts. Although hair is an epidermal structure, it is seated deep in the papillary layer of the dermis. It consists of two continuous regions, the root and a long projection. which is the shaft. The lower part of the shaft is enclosed in a follicle which is a sheath of epidermal cells continuous with those in other parts of the epidermis. Most animal hairs are of two types: primary and secondary. Primary hairs are the more numerous and vary in structure depending on the age and species of the animal. Secondary hairs. which are similar in structure to the primary, are only about one-third their diameter. The positions which the primary and secondary hairs occupy relative to each other as they enter the surface of the skin, together with their different thicknesses, determine the characteristic grain pattern of the dermal surface after the hair and other epidermis have been removed. Due to the general complexity of the papillary region, including hairs of various diameters at different stages of growth and located at different depths in the papillary layer, their removal by mechanical means is difficult. See also: HAIR-ON LEATHER; HAIR SHEEP; SHORT HAIR; UNHAIRING. (248, 291, 363)
hair marble
A marble pattern consisting of but one or two colors, and usually used on the edges of books. The colors are diluted to about one-third of their normal volume with water, and, when two colors are employed, enough gall is added to the first color to make it spread on the size to form a ribbon 5 to 6 inches wide, while the second color is applied evenly in fine drops, followed by a sprinkle of water which forms the hair veins. Carragheen moss is the usual sizing for this marble. Single-color hair marbles include the black, red or blue, while two-color hairs are usually red and black or bluish-brown. (151)
hair-on leather
A leather which has been produced without first removing the hair. SLUNK skins are preferred for this type of leather, although skins of older animals can be used after trimming of the hair. Hair-on leather has been used occasionally as a covering material for books. (248)
hair sheep
Leather made from the skin of a sheep that grows hair instead of wool The hair sheep is found in the mountainous regions of India, China, South America, and Africa. The leather produced form these skins has a finer and tougher grain than that made from wool-bearing sheep. See also: CABRETTA LEATHER. (61, 164)
hair side
The outer surface of a hide or skin, more commonly referred to in finished leather as the GRAIN SIDE.
hair slips
Hides and skins that have suffered sufficient PUTREFACTIVE DAMAGE so that the hair is loosened.
half bands
Horizontal ridges on the spines of some tight-back bindings. They are generally located at the head and tail of the volume, where they indicate the position of the kettle stitches, and are sometimes also between the raised bands. They are smaller than the raised bands. Half bands are often found on Italian and French bindings of the 16th century. (156)
half binding
A style of binding in which the spine and part of the side of the hook, as well as the four corners, are covered with one kind of material, e.g., leather, cloth, etc., and the sides with another material, e.g., cloth or paper. In this style of binding the spine covering usually extends onto the boards about one-fourth of their width, with the corners in harmonious proportion. See also: QUARTER BINDING; THREE-QUARTER BINDING. (133, 264)
half cloth
A book bound with a cloth spine, but not cloth corners. The sides are generally paper, which is also used for the spine title label. The style was fairly common on publisher's bindings from the late 1820s to the early 1840s. for three-volume novels into the early 1850s, and occasionally for general works since about 1890. The style was correctly (though not often) called "quarter cloth" by job binders. Also called at times "half linen." (69, 335)
half extra
1. In craft bookbinding, "half extra" letterpress binding is defined as any half-leather binding forwarded in boards, regardless of any decoration or lack of it. A half extra binding is one usually, but not necessarily, sewn on raised cords. If it is not sewn on raised cords, false bands are usually used. 2. In stationery binding, "half extra" is defined as a blankbook made up of machine-made paper that has been tubsized. Four sections are taped at front and back, and the book is sewn on webbings. It has a SPRING-BACK (1), made endpapers, cloth joints sewn on, leather linings between the webbings, and is covered on the spine and corners with calfskin or roan and on the sides with paper. (152, 236)
half French fold
A modification of the FRENCH FOLD, consisting of a sheet printed on one side only and given two folds, the first of which is half way down the short side of the sheet and the second at right angles to the first across the long side. It is used for brochures, leaflets, etc., but seldom in book work, except for folding maps. (150)
half gilt
An obsolete term used in describing a book sewn on raised cords; the bands appearing on the spine are tooled in gold, usually by means of a broad pallet or roll. The tool was also sometimes worked in the center of each panel between the bands. (97)
half leather
A book having a leather spine, extending over approximately one-fourth the width of the sides, leather corners, and the remainder of the sides covered in cloth or paper. Half leather bindings covered in calfskin of a tan or other shade of brown, with narrow spines and small corners, marbled paper sides. smooth cut edges which were sometimes stained pale yellow or sprinkled red, and plain endpapers, were common in England in the latter half of the 18th century. The corners of these volumes were occasionally vellum instead of leather. Stationers also issued cheap half leather bindings, often sheepskin, which were not trimmed and had no headbands, no squares, and were not lettered. Half vellum bindings, which were comparatively rare, were produced throughout the 19th century. See also: QUARTER LEATHER; THREE-QUARTER LEATHER. (261)
half linen
See: HALF CLOTH.
half-stamp
A finishing tool consisting of a stamp identical with or very similar to a half fleuron, pineapple, etc. It is generally used for tooling compartments at the edges of the frame in lozenge compartment decoration. It is also sometimes used back-to-back to form the lozenges in the center of the cover. The use of the half-stamp was common in Northern Europe and in England during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. (250)
half tanned
See: CRUST STOCK.
half vellum binding
A half binding covered on the spine and approximately one-fourth of the sides, as well as the corners, with vellum, with the remaining part of the sides being covered with paper. See also: HALF LEATHER.
hammering-down bands
See: KNOCKING DOWN.
hand-drawn end- and cover-papers
A term descriptive of custom end- and cover-papers. The design of the papers can be an integral part of the binding in every sense, and can be executed in many kinds of media, including lino- and wood-cut endpapers and covers, which are executed by means of small printing units of repeating designs, or blocks used to print the entire cover or endpaper in one impression. (335)
handle
1. A somewhat vague term applied to the impression of touch and sound when handling a sheet of paper. It includes such properties as feel, rattle, etc. 2. One or more strips of leather, cloth, or other material, attached loosely across the spine of a book from cover to cover and used to facilitate removal of the book from the shelf. Handles are seldom used today, except for large blankbooks. 3. See: FEEL. (17)
hand letters
Individual letters, numerals, etc., cut in brass and attached to wooden or asbestos handles, and used to letter a book by hand. The alternative to hand letters is brass type assembled in a PALLET (2) and used to letter a complete line of type at one time. (161, 236)
handmade paper
A type or class of paper made in hand molds in single sheets, and having a rough or DECKLE EDGE on all four sides. The paper is made by dipping the MOLD (1), of the size required, into the vat containing the stock, and then lifting it out with a particular motion, thus causing the fibers to bond together forming a sheet. Because of the methods employed in lifting and shaking the mold, handmade paper often has very little discernible grain or MACHINE DIRECTION, which means that it has more or less the same strength properties in both (all) directions. It is therefore unlike machine-made paper, which is much stronger in the machine direction than in the cross direction. Handmade paper is also generally superior to machine-made paper in that it is usually sized with gelatin, glue, or similar material, without the use of rosin or alum. It is relatively very expensive because, from the pulp stage, all of the operations are performed by hand and in single sheets; in contrast to the papermaking machine in which paper is felted, couched, pressed, dried, sized, calendered, and reeled in one continuous operation. For general information concerning paper, see: PAPER; PAPERMAKING. See also: COUCH (1, 2); DECKLE; FELT (1); WATERMARK. (79, 287, 320)
hand mold
See: MOLD (1); HANDMADE PAPER.
hand oversewing
See: OVERSEWING.
hand sewing
The process of sewing a book by hand. Although it is generally assumed to mean sewing through the folds of the sections, it may also refer to the sewing of sections, or, more often, leaves through the side, i.e., OVERSEWING, SIDE SEWING, the strengthening of the first and last sections or leaves of a sewn book by means of OVERCASTING, or the re-attachment or replacement of endpapers by the same means. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING; SADDLE SEWING; TAPE SEWING (1).
hand sizing
A method of sizing or resizing paper by dipping the sheets or leaves into a tub of size. Hand sizing was the original method of sizing paper, i.e., handmade paper, and is still used for that class of paper, and also by restorers when resizing documents or the leaves of a book. Old papers, which often contain decomposed size, can be made stronger and safer to handle if resized by hand. (77, 197)
hanging-in
A technique used in edition binding in which the TEXT BLOCK and its endpapers are joined to the case. The text block is positioned in the casing-in machine; the cover drops down over it; and the two are pressed to form the book. (259)
hard bound
hard binding
A book bound in cloth- or paper-covered stiff boards, as opposed to a book or pamphlet in a SELF-COVER, or a LIMP BINDING. The term is not generally applied to handbound books covered in leather.
hardener
1. A substance or mixture of substances added to an adhesive to promote or control the curing reaction by taking part in it. The term is also used to designate a substance used to increase the degree of hardness of the cured adhesive. See also: PLASTICIZER (1). 2. A substance added to paints or varnishes to provide a harder finish. (309)
hard glue
A GLUE used in the past in machine case-making where quick setting was the principal requirement of the glue and minimum flexibility was not a serious disadvantage. Such glues are hard in the sense that they contain no plasticizer. They were not used for gluing-up the spine, lining-up, or for flexible cover making, and are now seldom used in book production for any purpose. (256)
hard-grained goat
hard-grained morocco
A vegetable-tanned goatskin with the characteristic soft and small pinhead grain pattern produced by BOARDING (1) in a wet condition in a minimum of four directions. The grain is much tighter than that of LEVANT and the leather itself is firmer and harder than NIGER. (61)
hard rolled
A term descriptive of the toughness and durability of the board used in bookbinding, e.g., "hard rolled millboard." The term has no meaning other than that the board has been rolled under pressure and is very firm. (365)
hard sized
A paper which has received a maximum of sizing, resulting in a paper having a high degree of water resistance. The term applies only to the siZing characteristics of the paper. Cf: SLACK SIZED. (82, 98)
Harleian style
An English style of book decoration which came into vogue in about 1720. The name derives from the books of the Harleian library founded by Robert Harley (1661-1724), and expanded considerably by his son, Edward (1689-1741). Although the name Chapman was once associated with these bindings, along with that of Elliott, it has been established that at least the more important bindings were probably executed by Thomas Elliott. The general characteristics of the bindings are the predominantly bright red color (and inferior quality) of the morocco leather used, and a three-line fillet running around the edges of the covers. Within the fillet is a broad-tooled border made up of two or three sprigs of various patterns, and a large central ornament, usually in the shape of an elongated lozenge, built up from a number of small units. (69, 241, 280)
Harrison method
See: REVERSED V-GUARD.
head
1. The margin at the top of a printed page. 2. The top of a book or leaf. 3. The top of the spine of a book where the HEADBAND is located. 4. The top edge of a bound book. See also: TAIL (1). 5. That portion of a hide or skin from the head of the animal.
headband
See illustration A functional and/or ornamental band at the head and tail of a book between the sections and the spine covering, which projects slightly beyond the head and tail. Originally, the headband consisted of a thong core, similar to the bands on which the book was sewn, around which the ends of the threads were twisted and then laced into the boards of the book. Today, however, the headband is much simpler and is usually made of colored silk sewn to the book or simply attached after the volume has been forwarded. In edition binding they are almost always manufactured separately and then attached, while in library binding they have been replaced for the most part by a length of cord around which the covering material is rolled at both head and tail. Headbands at one time were distinguished as the "headband" and "tailband," but both are now called "headbands" or simply "heads," although the term "endband," to indicate both, single headband with core of vellum seems to be preferred by some bookbinders. The original headbands were intrinsically a part of the sewing of the book, and were used in lieu of kettle stitches in linking the sections together. They were a part of the construction of the book, which possibly explains why they were (and are) at both the head and tail, rather than just at the head. This type of headband was eventually discarded, however, because it did not permit cutting the edges subsequent to sewing, despite the fact that it had the great advantage of also banding the top and bottom of the sections together tightly. Techniques of headbanding continued to change, and by the 12th century, or even earlier, it became the common practice to sew the bands independently of the sections. Furthermore, until the end of the 15th century, they were always tied down in the fold of each section, when the increased production of books subsequent to Gutenberg made it necessary to reduce the cost of binding a single book. Thereafter, they were tied down at greater intervals. Because the boards of early bindings were cut flush, it was the usual practice to cut away the corners of the leaves at head and tail so as to make room for the bands and also to keep them from protruding too far and possibly being damaged. Headbands of the 12th and early 13th centuries were combined with a leather tab which extended beyond the spine, whereas from the middle of the 13th century to the end of the 15th century, the leather cover at the end of the spine was frequently cut so that it just covered the headbands. The cover was then sewn through from front to back, or vice versa, underneath and along the length of the hidden headband, resulting in a series of stitches on the spine of the book, as well as a series where normally one expected to see the beading. The binder usually used uncolored thread for both this and the headband, which was usually single and sewn independently of the sewing of the book. The plaited headband, which was made with strips of leather (usually tawed and stained pink), was still another variation. This type was rare in England but often used in Germany in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. This type of headband, which is the strongest ever devised, consisted of two thongs plaited around a core of rolled vellum, which had already been sewn to the book. The thongs also passed through holes made in the leather at the top of the spine where it was cut off instead of being turned in. When using this type of headband, the leather cover was sewn by means of plaited thongs to the primary headband which had already been sewn to the book, thereby making a solid connection at an important point. The conventional headband, which was sewn with colored silk or other type of thread, and which had the beading showing at the bottom complete with HEADCAP, was introduced very early in the 16th century and quickly became popular. The prevalent colors were blue and white, but pink and blue, pink and brown, as well as other combinations were also used. Double headbands are not often seen in 16th century English bookbinding, but they were used to some extent on the Continent. They acquired popularity in England in the 17th century, utilizing more interesting colors and superior materials than on the Continent. Until the beginning of the 20th century the double headband usually consisted of two rolls, one smaller than the other, with the smaller placed above the larger; however, early in the 20th century binders began placing the smaller band both in front of and below the larger. It also became the common practice to use a flat strip of material rather than a larger roll. Only a relatively few bookbinders since the 15th century have taken the trouble to tie down headbands at every section, or even tried to put the needle through the fold of the section where the tie-down was being made; instead it went between the leaves at intervals of 1/ to 1/2 inch. When the headband is an integral part of the book, it serves the practical purpose of taking up much of the strain from the spine covering when the book is pulled from the shelf in the usual manner. The worked headband reinforces that part of the spine covering extending beyond the text block because of the squares. The headband that is only glued on, on the other hand, is merely decorative and often falls short even in that respect, as it usually looks cheap and also as though it were an afterthought. Although it is generally believed that glued-on headbands were unknown before the early 19th century, i.e., the beginning of the rise of edition binding as we know it today, they were being used, at least in Germany, as early as the last decade of the 16th century. They were probably not used in English bookbinding until sometime in the first half of the 17th century. Although it must be assumed that glued on bands were used in that time as an economy measure, they probably required as much time to make as worked headbands. They were made by sewing two threads of the same or different colors in the usual manner with a cross-over beading onto a strip of vellum, which sometimes had its upper edge bent over to provide greater bulk. In many cases about 3/4 inch on each side of the core was not sewn but was attached to the boards, usually on the outside. In other cases the bulk of the headband was cut to the thickness of the book and only the part under the sewing extended across the joints or was laced through the joints on some vellum bindings. (141, 172, 236, 241, 335)
headbanding
The process of working or gluing headbands to the text block of a book. See also: HEADBAND.
head bolt
The top or "head" folds of a section. See also: BOLT.
head box
1. A large flow box on a Fourdrinier papermaking machine. The furnish of dilute stock is pumped into the head box and from there flows onto the wire where it is formed into the web of paper. The head box is equipped with baffles and other flow-evening devices; it also agitates the stock so as to prevent flocculation of the fibers. The head box is designed to spread the flow of furnish evenly and uniformly the entire width of the wire between the deckles. The box may be open, in which case the height of the stock provides the pressure, or closed, in which case air pressure is used. 2. A flow-regulating device on a cylinder papermaking machine which controls the volume of stock flowing to the screens and mixing boxes before the vats. (17, 72, 80)
headcap
See illustration The leather covering at the head and tail of the spine of a book, formed by turning the leather on the spine over the head and tail and shaping it. Knocking the dampened leather over the headbands so as to form protective caps was a technique introduced early in the 16th century. Although turning over the leather actually began to be done around 1500, it was not squared and sharply angled, nor was it initially tied around the joints. BACK CORNERING and tying around the joints so as to make indentation at the ends, which improved the setting of the headcaps, was introduced during the latter part of the 18th century. The technique of setting the headcaps has been customary in fine binding since its introduction. (161, 236, 237)
headed outline tool
See: CUSPED EDGE STAMP.
head trim
The measurement required to determine the position of printed matter before the final trimming of a sewn book. (139)
heat
A somewhat vague term specifically associated with the motion of atoms or molecules, but also applied in a general sense to the condition of excessive warmth or high temperature. Excessive heat results in the lowering of flexibility, strength, and resistance to natural decay through loss of moisture from leather, paper, adhesives, etc., as well as acceleration of decomposition reactions.
heat-set ink
A printing ink manufactured in such a manner as to enable it to dry quickly, thus allowing for higher speed printing. The materials used in manufacture vary but usually include a concentrated pigment, synthetic resins, and one of the volatile oils. Following printing, the printed web of paper is heated to a temperature of approximately 350° F. (177° C.) which volatilizes the oil, after which the web is rapidly cooled by passing it through chilled rollers which hardens the residue. (140, 276)
heat-set tissue
A lens tissue especially prepared for use in mending tears in paper, strengthening margins, and for laminating weak or badly torn leaves, by means of dry application rather than by the traditional aqueous application. The tissue is made of pure cellulose consisting of more or less lOO% rag content, no coating or additives, and a pH of 7.0. The tissue is not structurally uniform in texture, consequently there are small random open spaces and some bunching of fibers. Although its thickness is presumed to be approximately 0.0015 inch, this can vary from one batch to another, although it does not normally exceed 0.002 inch. The tissue is coated on one side with an acrylic resin. It is applied to both sides of tears, but to only one side of a weakened leaf, provided that no adhesive is exposed on the other side. The tissue is tipped on the leaf with a warm iron (approximately 100° F.), and then pressed on firmly through terylene or a textured paper. The iron is not pressed directly on the heat-set tissue because this might result in blocking and may also impart a sheen to the tissue, thus making it more noticeable.
heavy filling
A WEFT yarn that is greater in diameter than those normally used in the fabric. (341)
heavy warp
A WARP yarn that is greater in diameter than those normally used in the fabric. (341)
heel-ball
A shoemaker's composition of wax and lampblack, sometimes used to take rubbings of book spines. (25)
height
The overall dimension of a bound volume from head to tail, including the squares. Library binders frequently base their prices for binding on the height of the volume up to a specified thickness, e.g., 2 1/2 inches. The volumes are priced on the basis of each additional 1 or 2 inches, beginning with a minimum height, usually 8 inches, as for example: Library Books Cost Up to and including 8 inches Basic price Over 8 inches and including 9 inches Higher price Over 9 inches and including 10 inches Higher price Over 10 inches and including 11 inches Higher price Over 11 inches Higher price Magazines Up to and including 10 inches Basic price Over 10 inches and including 12 inches Higher price Over 12 inches and including 14 inches Higher price Over 14 inches and including 16 inches Higher price Over 16 inches Higher price
hemicelluloses
Any of several cell wall polysaccharides present in almost all vegetable fibers. Although impervious to water and almost all natural organic solvents, they may be removed gradually by means of aqueous alkalis. They are hydrolized to simple sugars, uronic acids and acetic acid when heated with dilute acids. Their molecular weights are usually lower than those of various celluloses. The presence of hemicelluloses in paper improves its bonding and folding characteristics. (17, 72, 235)
hemlock (bark)
A vegetable tanning material derived from either the Eastern (Canadian) hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, or the Western hemlock. T. heterophylla, the former being the best known and most used. The bark of the eastern hemlock has an average tannin content of 15 to 16%, while that of the western variety average 10 to 11%. One characteristic of the bark is the lack of any appreciable quantity of sugars, with the result that it does not produce acids by fermentation. Because of this, it is customary to add a small amount of organic acid to hemlock tan liquor. Another characteristic is the reddish color it imparts to the leather, which can be modified considerably by the addition of other tanning materials, such as oak bark or quebracho. Hemlock bark was for many years the most important tanning material used in the United States and Canada, and was, along with oak bark, the principal material used in tanning leather on a commercial scale. It was responsible for the characteristic "red" leather produced in America in the 19th century. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
hemp
A tall Asiatic herb, Cannabis sativa, which yields a tough bast fiber when retted. Hemp fibers are difficult to distinguish from linen by ordinary examination, but their presence may be suspected in a fibrillated paper. Hemp is used mainly for thin, opaque papers of great strength; however, it is almost never used alone. The term "hemp" has also come to be used in a generic sense as fiber and is then preceded by an adjective, e.g., Manila hemp (See: ABACA), Seisal hemp (See: SISAL), etc. Hemp is also fairly widely employed for the cords used in sewing books. (17, 62, 143, 198)
heraldic cresting
A form of cresting used in decorating bookbindings, the projections of which terminate in heraldic emblems. See also: CRESTING ROLL (250)
herringbone pattern
A pattern on cloth consisting of adjacent rows of parallel lines where any two adjacent rows slope slightly in reverse directions.
Hertzberg stain
A chemical test frequently used to detect the presence of specific fibers in a paper. The Hertzberg stain not only has a greater degree of color selectivity than any other stain, it also brings out the details of the structure very effectively in the case of those fibers which it does not stain with a selective color. It is prepared from: 1) a saturated solution of zinc chloride in distilled water; 2) a solution containing 0.25 gram of iodine and 5.25 grams of potassium iodide dissolved in 12.5 ml. of distilled water; and 3) the entire solution of number 2 added to 25 ml. of number 1. The colors produced are: Color indicating the presence of: Red Sulfite or sulfate chemical wood pulp, esparto, straw, bamboo, and most other chemically treated fibers. Yellow-brown Chemical wood pulp which has been incompletely cooked (so as to preserve strength), with the result that some lignins are still present. Bright yellow Materials containing lignin, e.g., groundwood pulp, jute and unbleached manila hemp. (72, 143)
hexane
Any of the five isometric volatile liquid paraffin hydrocarbons, of the formula (C6H14), the most important isomer being (CH3(CH2)4CH3) Hexane is used as a solvent and thinner for the wax used in some leather dressings, and also a solvent for the adhesive of pressure-sensitive tapes. (130, 173)
hidden painting
See: FORE-EDGE PAINTING.
hide
1. The raw or tanned pelt removed from the adult of one of the larger animals, e.g., cowhide, as distinguished from the skin of one of the smaller animals, e.g., goatskin, or an immature larger animal, e.g., calfskin. The finest part of a hide is located in the butt area. The shoulder provides good quality although its natural substance is somewhat uneven and falls away toward the cheeks, which are often trimmed. Shoulders also tend to show growth marks which can be conspicuous. The bellies give thinner and sometimes weaker leather. 2. Leather made from hides which have not been split, or from the grain split of a hide. When used in this manner, the name of the animal or the type of leather may be specified, e.g., cowhide. (363)
hide buffing
A very thin film of the grain layer of a cowhide, sometimes used for labels Also known as "beeswing."
hide glue
GLUE made from the collagen content of hides and skins, particularly of bovine animals, as distinguished from glue made from bones. Hide glue does not include glue made from the skins of fish. (184)
high bulk book paper
A book paper which, in a basis weight of 45 pound 25 X 38—500) bulks 440 to 344 pages to the inch, under 35 pounds pressure. (17)
high finish
A smooth, hard, glossy finish applied to the surface of cloth, paper, etc., during the manufacturing process. (139)
hinge
1. The strip of fabric (usually linen or cambric), or paper placed between the two parts of a library-style cloth-jointed endpaper, for the purpose of providing additional strength at the point of flexing. 2. Any Japanese copying paper or linen stub that allows for the free flexing of an insert, leaf, etc. 3. An obsolete term for the tongue made by gluing and folding over the waste leaves on which the bands or cords were pasted and then inserted between split boards. (161, 208, 264)
hinged
A map, plate, or other separate sheet which has been folded along the binding edge in order to reduce the possibility of the sheet tearing away from the one to which it is attached, and also to allow it to lie flat and turn easily during use. hinged and jointed plate. Two contiguous plates each of which has had a strip cut away at the binding edge, and are then joined together by means of a common strip of Japanese copying paper or linen, forming a hinge. See also: GUARD (2).
hinged boards
A type of binding having boards attached to a stab-sewn or post binding, by means of a cloth hinge which joins the main board to a narrow board at the spine of the book. The narrow board is secured by the posts or stab sewing. Hinged boards are characteristic of some types of blankbooks. (119, 204)
hinged ledger paper
1. A LEDGER PAPER that has a flexible (due to the fact that it is thinner) strip running from top to bottom of the sheet about five-eights of an inch in from the edge (binding edge) of the sheet. The strip is a result of the removal of some paper fibers, usually by means of suction, during manufacture. The strip is about 1 1/4 inch wide. The paper, being thinner at the area of the hinge, is easier to turn and will lie flatter; however, it is also weaker at that point, which may adversely affect writing. 2. A ledger paper having a strip of linen (or cambric) attached to the binding edge of the leaf. Its purpose is to allow the leaf to turn more easily and lie flat. (17)
hinged on a mount
A separate leaf, illustration, etc., attached to a GUARD (2) and bound into the book. (169)
hinge guarding
See: REVERSED V-GUARD.
hog's back
1. An exaggerated curve of the spine of a book, caused by improper rounding, the use of a sewing thread that is too thick, or a combination of the two. 2. An uneven trim of the fore edge of a book that is cut with the plow, caused by the plow knife riding up as it traverses the length of the book. (65, 159)
hogskin
A soft leather produced from the skin of the peccary, genus Tayassu, and having a distinctive grain pattern formed by the hair follicles which are arranged in detached groups of three. Cf: PIGSKIN.
holdout
The degree to which a material, such as cloth or paper, impedes the penetration of an aqueous or nonaqueous liquid. If the liquid is water, or water vapor, holdout is described as SIZING (1). Non-aqueous liquids include some printing inks, lacquers, etc.
holiday
Any area of an adhesive-covered surface, such as a PASTEDOWN, which does not adhere properly. See also: DRUMMING ON. (140)
holing out
holing
The process of drilling, or more commonly, punching holes in the boards of a book to receive the cords prepared for LACING-IN. (156)
holing-out block
A block of lead or other soft metal on which the board of a book is placed for drilling or punching the holes for the cords or slips in preparation for LACING-IN. See also: HOLING OUT. (115)
holland
A cotton or linen fabric, usually in plain weave and heavily sized or glazed, and, when used in bookbinding, gummed. The holland is used in a technique of library rebinding in which a sewing machine automatically feeds two narrow strips of gummed cloth in such a manner that the sewing passes through the holland and the paper. The book to be sewn is prepared as for oversewing, i.e., the leaves are divided into thin "sections," which are run through the sewing machine one at a time, with a strip of gummed holland being sewn simultaneously to each side of the "section." After all of the "sections" have been sewn, the strips of holland are moistened, and the book is jogged and then pressed until the gum has dried. The strips of holland hold the "sections" together along the binding edge. This technique is sometimes employed when the paper of the book is too embrittled, or otherwise weakened, to allow oversewing; however, it is seldom very successful, as the paper usually fails at the juncture of paper and holland. (339)
Hollis, Thomas
1720-1774
An eccentric English philanthropist and propagandist of the idea of liberty. Hollis distributed books in support of liberty, particularly to libraries abroad, such as those at Berne, Zurich, and Harvard College. The bindings were commissioned from John Matthewman or Richard Montagu, and decorated with emblematic tools designed by G. B. Cipriani, the original drawings for which are now at Harvard. When the first set of tools was destroyed in a fire in Matthewman's shop in 1764 a second set was engraved by Thomas Pingo. These subjects include Britannica, Liberty, the caduceus of Mercury, the wand of Aesculapius, the owl of Minerva, a cock, a liberty cap, and the short Roman sword, or pugio. The simpler bindings were by Matthewman, while Montagu executed the more elaborate presentation bindings. (, 244, 297)
hollow
See illustration The lining attached to both the spine of the text block and the inside of the spine of the covering material. It is usually constructed of kraft paper, and consists of a folded sheet, one section of which is glued to the spine of the text block and the other to the covering material. There are many variations of the hollow, however; for example, see: ONE ON AND TWO OFF, or TWO ON AND ONE OFF, The purpose of the hollow is to assist in the opening of the book much in the same manner as th SPRING-BACK of a blankbook, though with much less force. The thickness of the paper used for the hollow depends on the size and thickness of the hook and the thickness of the paper and sections of the book. (81, 261)
hollow back
hollow back binding
A binding having a space between the spine of the text block and the spine of the cover. resulting from the covering material being attached at the joints (or a one-piece cover in the style of a case binding) and not glued to the spine of the text block. Sometimes a Hollow is glued to the text block and covering material; in library binding, however, generally only an INLAY (1) is glued to the covering material, while in edition binding there is usually no support of any kind. The hollow hack binding is believed to have originated in France in about 1770, but it was little used in England before about 1800. It was still comparatively rare in craft binding until about 1820. when the semi-elliptical spine with its pronounced shoulders began to be replaced by the structurally inferior flat spine, which had almost no shoulders and therefore provided little support. The combination of this weaker spine and the use of the hollow hack on books which then did not normally need them has resulted in many of the bindings of that time falling apart, while those bound with tight backs years earlier are still in good condition, except for broken joints. The advantages of the hollow back, which is used almost universally in library and edition binding, are: 1) the tooling or lettering on the spine will not flex and crack; 2) in hand binding. covering is less exacting; 3) in edition and library binding, the cover (case) can be made separately; 4) in hand binding, sewing is faster because it is on tapes rather than cords; and 5) overall. it is a much more economical method than tight-back binding. See also: OXFORD HOLLOW. (156, 236, 343)
hollow-punch pliers
Pliers with a tubular sharp-edge cutter, used for punching holes in leather. Such pliers have interchangeable cutters, including eyelet closers. Their principal shortcoming is their limited reach.
hollow tooling
A bookbinding design which is executed in outline, generally in gold. (81)
hooked
hooked on own guard
See: GUARDED IN. See also: PLATE ATTACHMENT.
horn bindings
Bindings consisting of hard, white, smooth, polished vellum. They were sparsely decorated and had the title written in Chinese ink at the top of the spine.
horn book
A form of child's primer used in England from the 15th century, and in the United States at a later time. The earliest examples were made from 'wainscot" (thin panels of oak) and had a label containing the alphabet, simple spelling, numbers. and the Lord's prayer pasted on the wood and covered with a thin, transparent veneer of cattle horn. A wooden handle was attached to the frame. In latter examples the back of the panel was covered with morocco or roan leather blocked with an ornamental device. Other, but rare, examples were made entirely of cowhide with a window cut in the upper portion. See PLATE 11. (104, 156, 183)
horse
1. A trestlelike structure of suitable height, traditionally made of wood, but also of a light, non-corrosive, nonstaining material such as plastic, on which hides and skins are piled for draining, transportation from one department to another in the tannery. and sometimes for storage purposes. 2. A T-shaped stand, about 3 feet high, on which spoiled sheets from the POST (1) in a handmade paper mill are placed. Being practically of no value as paper, these sheets are subsequently placed at the top and bottom of the salable packs to protect them. (197, 363)
horsing up
The process of piling hides and skins on the HORSE (1) for draining, etc. Because the use of the horse may result in the fibers of the leather setting in a creased configuration, when a flat leather is required hides and skins are placed on a flat surface for draining, transportation, etc. (363)
hot-melt adhesive
A resinous adhesive which achieves a solid state and resultant strength by cooling, as contrasted with other adhesives which achieve the same results through evaporation or removal of the solvents. Before heating, a hot-melt adhesive is a thermoplastic, 100% solid material, and is all adhesive. Upon the application of heat, the usual operating temperature being in the range of 175 to 205° C. (350 to 400° F.), the material changes to a fluid state. Subsequent to the removal of heat, it sets by simple cooling. When a hot-melt adhesive comes into close contact with the surface to be bonded, a molecular layer of film at the surface of this substrate immediately attains a temperature approaching that of the hot melt. In addition a high degree of wetting, almost coalescence. of the hot melt and the material occurs. Immediately thereafter, the adhesive loses heat to the film over the entire area and temperature equilibrium is attained. Since the adhesive is in contact with a mass much larger than itself, the temperature of the entire system drops to the point at which the hot melt sets to a solid state with sufficient cohesive strength to bond the films together. Thus the uniqueness of hot-melt adhesives stems from the speed with which they produce a bond, which is almost instantaneously. Although the use of hot-melt adhesives eliminates the cost of solvents required by some other adhesives, the principal cost reduction results from the time saved in their application. In addition, a lesser quantity of the hot melt can usually be utilized to produce an equivalent bond. Hot-melt adhesives are used extensively in binding books made of loose sheets, especially those that are not rounded and backed, e.g., paperback books, telephone and other directories, etc. For books that are to be rounded and backed, however, the so-called DRYING MEMORY of the hot-melt adhesives causes problems. In addition, hot-melt adhesives alone do not lend themselves well to the binding of heavily loaded or coated paper, from which all particulate matter must be removed before application of the adhesive. See also: ADHESIVE BINDING; ONE-SHOT METHOD (1); TWO-SHOT METHOD. (81, 89, 179, 219, 309)
hot-melt coating
A method of applying molten plastic materials to a base stock. such as paper or a book cloth without the use of a solvent or other carrier. Rolls, knives, casting, or extrusion techniques are used in this method of coating.
hot-setting adhesive
An adhesive which requires a temperature of 100° C. or greater to cause it to set. See also: COLD-SETTING ADHESIVE; ROOM-TEMPERATURE SETTING ADHESIVE. (309)
h pattern
A criss-cross pattern embossed on a book cloth, resulting in small diamond-shaped spaces on the cloth.
hubs
See illustration The several thicknesses of board glued together and then to the SPRING-BACK (1) of a book, usually a large stationery binding. The hubs, which appear as relatively large, raised bands or ridges under the covering material (usually leather) on the spine of the book, strengthen the spine and protect the leather from wear and other damage. The hubs may also serve as an integral part of the decoration of the spine of the book. Cf: FALSE BANDS. (264, 339)
hue
That particular attribute of colors which allows them to be classed as bluish, greenish, reddish, yellowish, etc. See also: COLOR (1).
humectant
A substance that absorbs and promotes the retention of moisture from the air. The softening (plasticizing) agents in adhesives owe their effectiveness to their capacity to absorb and retain moisture. Cf: HYGROSCOPICITY. See also: FLEXIBLE GLUE; INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED; GLUE. (184, 198)
humidified
A paper that has been brought to equilibrium with the moisture in the air at a definite relative humidity.
humidity
The actual amount of water vapor present in the air. See: ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY. A more relevant term in book work is RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
hung-in
A book that has been glued-in to its cover at the spine only, e.g., a pamphlet glued into its SELF-COVER. (256)
hung on guards
Inserts, such as maps, plates, etc., which have been glued to strips of paper or linen, which are then tipped or stubbed into the book (256)
hyaline layer
A term sometimes used to indicate the smooth surface which is assumed to exist between the epidermis and grain surface of a hide or skin, and which gives the characteristic grain pattern of the leather. See also: DERMIS. (363)
hydration
1. A term applied to the condition of materials containing water of absorption, crystallization, or imbibition. In papermaking, hydration refers to the chemical or mechanical (or both) treatment of paper fibers, other than cooking or bleaching, which takes place before sheet formation on the papermaking machine. It relates especially to altered sheet characteristics, including density, formation, opacity, and strength. 2. The paper pulp characteristics resulting from the above treatment. (17, 42, 276)
hydraulic press
A STANDING PRESS operated by hydraulic power instead of by hand. Such presses came into use in the first half of the 19th century, and were the principal means of pressing edition and library bindings until the introduction of the casing-in and building-in machines. See also: BUILDING-IN MACHINE; CASING-IN MACHINE; REMOVABLE PRESS.
hydrochloric acid
A strong, corrosive, inorganic acid (HCl), manufactured by absorbing hydrogen chloride in water. It is one of the most corrosive of acids, and is particularly destructive to cellulose, breaking the cellulose chain into even smaller units, resulting ultimately in its complete hydrolysis. The problems with hydrochloric acid began with the use of chlorine in bleaching paper fibers. For many years thereafter, the chlorine substances were insufficiently removed by washing, giving rise to the formation of the acid in paper. Although washing techniques have improved, excess residual hydrochloric acid can exist in paper because of the practice of using chlorine compounds to wash and bleach paper subsequent to its manufacture.
hydrogel
A gel in which the liquid is water.
hydrogen cyanide
hydrocyanic acid prussic acid
An extremely toxic, colorless liquid (HCN), prepared by reacting methane, air, and ammonia over a platinum catalyst at 1,000° C. It is used to fumigate books.
hydrogen-ion concentration
The concentration of hydrogen ions (more properly hydronium ions—H3O+, although its true structure is probably (H,4H2O), existing in an aqueous solution. It is a measure of the active acidity or basicity and is expressed metrically as the number of moles or gram-formula weights (1.0078 g.) of hydrogen ions (H+) per liter of solution. The hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution may also be expressed in terms of its pH, which is defined as the negative logarithm to the base ten of the hydrogen-ion concentration. In aqueous solutions, neutrality is the condition that exists when the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions are equal. At 25° C., neutrality occurs at a pH of 7.0, which is the pH value of pure (distilled) water when condensed hot and shielded from contact with atmospheric carbon dioxide. Measurement of hydrogen-ion concentration, or pH, may be made colorimetrically, by means of the proper use of suitable neutralization indicators, or, more accurately, by potentiometric methods employing any of various electrodes, which exhibit the proper specificity for hydrogen ions. Hydrogen-ion concentration is important in archival work because it has been adequately demonstrated that the presence of acid(s) in ink, leather, paper, etc., has or can have, a deleterious effect on such materials, the extent of the effect depending not so much on the volume of acid present, as on the type of acid and its concentration, i.e., a large volume of a relatively weak organic acid, such as formic acid, is less harmful than a smaller amount of a powerful, inorganic acid, such as sulfuric acid. As a decrease of pH means a logarithmic increase in acid concentration, levels of concentration below pH 5.0, or under certain circumstances, even 6.0, become important. Conversely, although not as serious a problem, a high concentration of hydroxyl ions, corresponding to a pH of 10.0 or above, can lead to serious oxydization of cellulosic materials. The increase in hydrogen-ion concentration as pH declines is given be pH moles/ liter 7.0 0.0000001 6.0 .000001 5.0 .00001 4.0 .0001 3.0 .001 2.0 .01 1.0 .1 0.0 1.0 See also:ACID; ALKALI. (17, 195, 235)
hydrogen peroxide
An oxidizing chemical (H2O2), which can be prepared from barium peroxide and dilute sulfuric acid. It is used in bleaching paper pulp, sometimes alone, but more often in combination with other pulp bleaching agents.
hydrolysis
In its broadest sense, hydrolysis indicates a reaction between any substance and water; however, the use of the term is commonly restricted to those reactions due directly to the hydrogen and hydroxyl ions of the water. Due to hydrolysis, for example, nearly every salt yields a slightly acid or alkaline solution. Thus, ethyl acetate in water, for example, forms acetic acid and ethanol: CH3CO2C2H5, + H2O → CH3MCOOH + C2H5OH. Hydrolysis is the basis for the manufacture of soap (saponification), whereby fats (glycerol esters of fatty acids) are split with aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide to form the sodium salt of the fatty acid (soap) and the alcohol (glycerol—more commonly known as glycerine). In reactions involving sal[s, the neutralization reaction that led to the formation of the salt is partially reversed, forming some free acid and free alkali. If the acid is weak, i.e., poorly ionized, and the alkali is strong, i.e., highly ionized, the aqueous solution of the salt will have an alkaline reaction as a result of the hydrolysis. In the opposite case, that of a strong acid and weak base, the salt will have an acidic reaction in an aqueous solution. An example of the latter is papermaker's alum (aluminum sulfate), which is hydrolyzed in aqueous solution to form aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)), which is insoluble and therefore forms few ions, and sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which is almost completely ionized in a dilute water solution. The acid character of alum is well known by its extremely sour, astringent taste, and by its detrimental effect on the permanence of paper.
hydrophilic
A substance that is readily wetted by water. VELLUM is a typical hydrophilic substance.
hydrophobic
A substance that is water repellent, or not easily wetted by water. Nylon is a typical hydrophobic substance.
hygroexpansivity
A change in the dimensions of a material, such as paper, because of a change in the ambient relative humidity of the atmosphere surrounding the material. The phenomenon is usually expressed as a percentage, and is generally several times greater in the cross direction of a paper than in the MACHINE DIRECTION, because paper fibers expand much more in diameter than in length when wetted. Hygroexpansivity is of considerable importance where the dimension of paper is critical, such as in multi-color offset printing. See also: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR; DRIED-IN STRAIN. (17, 72)
hygrometer
An instrument used for measuring the relative humidity, or percentage of moisture saturation of the air, such as the dew-point hygrometer, psychrometer, hair hygrometer, etc.
hygroscopicity
That property of a substance which enables it to absorb water vapor from the surrounding atmosphere. Relative to most materials, vellum and paper, particularly the former, are strongly hygroscopic.
hygroscopic moisture
The amount of moisture retained by a material in the AIR DRY condition.
hymnal style
A style of binding used for church hymnals, or similar publications which utilizes a narrow leather spine, cloth sides, round or square corners, and colored edges. (261)
hysteresis
The differential value of a property, contingent upon approaching a known value of a related condition from a higher or lower level. A material such as paper, for example, that is to be conditioned at 50% relative humidity, will contain more moisture when this level is approached from above 50% than when approached from below. Hysteresis has a considerable influence in governing the dimensional stability of paper.
I
The Roman equivalent of 1. See: ROMAN NUMERALS.
ichthyocoll
See: ISINGLASS.
illuminated
A manuscript or book embellished with ornamental letters, scrolls, miniature and/or other designs, usually in gold and red, but also in silver and other colors. (169)
illuminated binding
A binding which has extra colors in its scheme of decoration, and especially a binding in which a design was first blocked in blind and afterwards colored. Originally a French innovation, this style was used in England from about 1830 to 1860. Burnt sienna, carmine, gamboge, indigo, sap green and ultramarine were the colors most often used mainly because they were more lightfast. The color was mixed with a suitable gum and applied to the cover; when it was dry, gold leaf was laid on the areas to be gilded, and the entire design was then impressed with the heated block, which fixed both gold and colors, sharpening the edge of the latter. (152, 156, 236, 365)
illumination
The decoration of a manuscript or book with painted pictures, ornamented letters, designs, or a combination thereof, in colors and (usually) burnished gold or silver. The design was first drawn and then sized with a mixture of clay, gypsum or lime, followed by an adhesive (glair). The gold or silver leaf was laid on and burnished, and the colors were then applied. Although illumination is considered to be a medieval art, its origins can be traced back to illustrated Egyptian papyrus rolls and especially to Greco-Roman book illustration. Classical artists illustrated the text of codices with continuous chronological sequences of scenes, which often filled the entire page. The word "miniature," which comes from the Latin minimum (red lead, which the Romans used for initial letters), is frequently used with reference to the individual pictures in an illuminated work; however, a "miniature painting" is not synonymous with "illustration," because illuminations are usually executed in gold or silver while miniatures generally are not. (140, 156, 365)
illustration board
A board used primarily for the application of ink and water color. It is made by pasting drawing paper to one or both sides of a board, one that is usually filled, pulp-lined, or pasted. The usual properties of the drawing paper, such as finish and sizing, are essential, but hard sizing and good erasing quality are of greatest importance. The finished board should be as free as possible from warping. The basis weight is ] 50 pounds (] 7 x 22—500), and the thickness is 0.0325 inch. (17)
imbrication
A form of embellishment of a book featuring a pattern consisting of overlapping leaves or scales. The term is also applied to any decorative pattern composed of overlapping elements. (156, 233)
imitation art paper
A printing paper containing a high percentage of china clay, kaolin, etc., in the paper furnish. It has a very high water finish, which provides the required surface opacity, and absorbency suitable for the printing of some halftones. Imitation art paper differs from ART PAPER (1) in that the clay is mixed with the fibers, and is thus an entirely on-machine operation. Coated art paper, which is the superior product, may be determined by the black mark which results from rubbing it with a silver coin. Imitation art paper is not usually suitable for halftone printing where the screen is finer than ]33 lines. (17, 58)
imitation cloth
A material other than a woven fabric, e.g., paper or plastic, which has been embossed to give it the surface appearance of a fabric. (102)
imitation gold
A metallic composition used as a substitute for gold leaf or foil in the lettering and decorating of books, particularly in edition binding. It is usually made of powdered bronze. It lacks the richness and depth of genuine gold and eventually tarnishes due to oxidation. Also called "artificial gold." (147, 164)
imitation leather
A coated fabric, rubber or plastic composition, or absorbent paper, manufactured so as to resemble genuine leather. Of the many efforts to find a satisfactory substitute for leather, both proposed and actually manufactured, only a few have any extensive use in bookbinding today, and, as they usually contain cellulose nitrate or polychlorides, their permanence is suspect. Also called "artificial leather." (198, 264)
imitation parchment
A type of relatively strong paper first produced by W. E. Gaine in 1857. It is made entirely of chemical wood pulp and is called imitation parchment in order to distinguish it from parchment paper made in imitation of true (animal) parchment. Imitation parchment now bears little resemblance to that paper, nor does it possess any of its qualities. The paper may be rendered partially transparent, greaseproof, and somewhat waterproof by prolonged beating (hydration) of the pulp or by treating the paper with sulfuric acid. The usual basis weight is 30 pounds (24 X 35—500). (17, 156)
imitation Russia
A vegetable-tanned split cowhide finished with oil of birch to impart the odor characteristic of true RUSSIA LEATHER.
imitation vellum
A paper made so as to simulate true VELLUM, and produced in much the same manner as IMITATION PARCHMENT, except that it is thicker.
imperfect
1. A book having leaves or sections omitted, duplicated, misplaced or bound in upside down, damaged, etc. 2. An obsolete term for reams of paper that have not been made up of the full number of a printer's ream. (83, 156)
imperfection note
The bookbinder's list of shortages encountered as he proceeds through to the end of an edition run. Certain sections or plates may be missing because of spoilage or short printing, and it is customary to print the requisite extra copies of these when, and if, the book is reprinted. (307)
imperfections
1. Printed sheets rejected by the binder because of some kind of imperfection, and which must be replaced before the work can be completed. 2. Additional sections, i.e., those printed and folded in excess of the number required to complete the run. (339)
imperial morocco cloth
A linen cloth finished with a grain pattern resembling leather, usually a straight-grained morocco.
imposition
The plan of arrangement of the pages of type in a chase so that they will read consecutively when the printed sheet is folded. It is a term which means literally "in position," and originated in letterpress printing. There are four standard methods of imposition: 1) sheetwise; 2) work-and-turn; 3) work-and-tumble; and 4) work-and-twist. The purpose of having different schemes is to obtain maximum economy in printing. Sheetwise imposition, also known as "work-and-back," "front-and-back," or "print-and-back," requires two image carriers per color, one each for the front and back of the sheet. This method is used for printing jobs where the number of pages to be printed on each side of the sheet is large enough to utilize the full capacity of the press. Work-and-turn imposition, also known as "print-and-turn," is used where it is practical to print both sides of the sheet from a single image carrier per color. It is frequently used, and requires relatively large presses because the sheet will carry two complete units, each occupying one-half of the sheet. The sheet is either slit during backup or is cut apart after printing. Workand-turn imposition cuts the number of sheets to be printed by 50%, but it generally requires larger and more expensive presses than sheetwise imposition. Work-and-tumble imposition, also known as "print-and-tumble," "workand-roll," or "work-and-flop," is used less frequently than either of the two previous methods. It is selected when a work-and-turn form cannot be used, or when two sheetwise forms would have to be run on a sheet of difficult dimensions. This method needs only one image carrier for printing both sides of the sheet, and in this respect it is similar to work-and-turn. Work-and-twist imposition, also known as "work-and-twirl," differs fundamentally from all three previous schemes. While the first three are methods designed to produce sheets printed on both sides, work-and-twist imposition solves problems pertaining to one-side printing, e.g., printing blank rule and tabular forms, with cross rules in one section and vertical rules in the other. In this method, two separate sections, or divisions, of an individual form are imposed and locked up together in such a manner that they may be printed side by side on a double-sized sheet in one impression. After completion of the run, the already printed paper is repositioned face up for the second printing from the same image carrier. Work-and-twist imposition is actually rarely used, as it requires nearly perfectly square stock for execution. (234, 287, 289, 316, 320, 339)
impregnated fabrics
Fabrics in which the interstices between the yarns are completely filled with the impregnating compound throughout the thickness of the material, as distinguished from sized or coated fabrics, where the interstices are not completely filled. Sometimes the reverse side of impregnated fabrics are sized to insure the adhesive sticking to the cloth. When a grain or pattern is applied to impregnated fabrics, it is worked directly into the cloth, rather than on a surface coating as is the case of coated fabrics. See also: BOOK CLOTH. (208, 260, 341)
impregnated paper
A paper in which a material such as latex or plastic is made to permeate the paper rather than merely coat it, thus adding to the wet strength, tearing resistance, and oil or grease resistance of the paper. The untreated paper used in its manufacture is known as saturating paper. (102, 139)
impressed watermark
See: WATERMARK.
impression
1. The pressure required to transfer ink from one surface to another, as, for example, plate to paper, or plate to blanket, etc. It is usually expressed in terms of thousandths of an inch beyond that needed to produce first contact between two printing cylinders. 2. A printed copy or the result of impressing ink upon a receiving surface. 3. The indentations remaining in paper as a result of the pressure used in letterpress printing plus the dampness of the paper. These impressions were often quite pronounced in early letterpress printing. See also: CONVEX COVERS. 4. The effect produced by stamping, blocking, printing, or tooling a design or lettering on the covers of a book. 5. All copies of a work printed at one time from one setting of type. There may be several impressions (presumably unaltered) of one edition, each new printing from standing type or original plates constituting a new "impression" of the work. If, however, the pages are reimposed to produce a different format, the resultant impression is a different edition. 6. A single copy of a print or map. 7. A print taken by means of a special engraving press, from an enlarged plate. (12, 17, 83)
in boards
in-board binding in-board forwarding
1. A book which has had its edges cut after the boards have been laced-in. In-board forwarding, although infrequently used today, was the principal method of craft bookbinding for centuries and in many respects is still the finest technique of forwarding, as it treats bookbinding purely as a craft. It also enables the bookbinder to achieve more accurate SQUARES. It is an abbreviation of "cut in boards." Cf: OUT OF BOARDS. 2. A term occasionally applied to an economical style of binding common in 18th and early 19th centuries, consisting of pasteboards covered with paper, usually blue sides and a white spine. (343)
in-boards extra
An in-board binding with solid gilt edges.
incised leather
See: CUIR-BOUILLI; CUIR-CISELÉ.
incunabula
incunabulum incunable
Books and all printing from movable metal type which can be dated before the year 1501. The date limitation probably derives from the earliest known catalog of incunabula, an appendix to Johann Saubert's Historia bibliothecae Noribergensis…catalogus librorum proximis ab inventione annis usque ad a. Ch. 1500 editorum, 1643. "Incunabula" derives its name from the Latin "cunae" (cradle) and refers to books produced in the infancy of printing. The term may also be used to designate works created during the earliest stages in the development of an art form or technique or at the beginning of any new period of artistic productivity. In a general sense, the term "incunabula" can be used to refer to printed works of a time so early in the history of printing in a given locality that such printing may be said to be in its infancy; thus it is possible to speak of American incunabula, Arizona incunabula, etc. With regard specifically to printing, however, and unless stated otherwise, the term is used to refer to the products of the European press of the 15th century. Incunabula were usually simply bound in leather-covered boards with decoration in blind. However, their collectors later often had them rebound in more sumptuous covers; consequently original bindings are now relatively rare. (69, 140, 255)
independents
Books or pamphlets published separately and later bound together into one physical volume.
index
In bookbinding, the words, letters, numbers, etc., printed, stamped or pasted in alphabetical, numerical, or other order: 1) in spaces cut or gouged in the fore edge of the book; 2) tabs attached to the leaves at the fore edge; or 3) printed on the leaves of the book, or on separate sheets to be inserted in their proper position in the book. The purpose of the index is to facilitate quick reference to the contents. See also: CUT THROUGH INDEX; ONE-LETTER INDEX; TAB INDEX; THUMB INDEX; TWO-LETTER INDEX.
index board
A type of single- or twin-wire pulp board, in white and colors, used for index cards and other record keeping. The board has a good, even, well finished surface suitable for writing, and is smooth, hard-sized, and of an even LOOK-THROUGH. The usual basis weights are 180, 220, 280, 340, and and 440 pounds (25.5 X 30.5—1000). (17)
indexing
The process of attaching index tabs to the leaves of a book, or the cutting, stamping, gouging or printing of indices in the fore edges of books. When tabs are used for the index, the top one is cut larger than the others when the steps are small, because. being at the top of the leaf, a small step may break away during use unless it is large enough to be secured firmly to the leaf. In blankbook tab indexing, under average conditions, certain letters of the alphabet will have more accounts listed under them than will other letters. Analysis of this had led to the development of tables that give the proper number of pages to meet the requirements of each letter. Thus, more pages are required for the initial letter S, followed by B (or vice versa in some cases), then H, and so on down to X, which requires the fewest. Indices for reference books are usually of the thumb type, while blankbooks generally have cut through or tab indices. In indexing format, a ONE-LETTER INDEX usually consists of 24 letters or divisions, while a TWO-LETTER INDEX has 13 divisions. Some indices have supplementary indices for the five vowels cut into the leaves of each letter of the main index. Although these terms are used, an index may be made with any number of divisions and leaves to each division, or may be cut through the entire book. (264, 343)
index rolls
Alphabetical brass rolls used for lettering indices. (264)
index shears
A curved or ordinary pair of shears with an adjustable gauge, used for cutting step indices. (264)
index tab
A small piece of leather. paper, card, or fabric attached to. and projecting from the fore edge of a book and bearing in progressive order, usually from head to tail, letters, words, symbols, or other indexing information. See a1so: THUMB INDEX. (74)
India Bible paper
See: BIBLE PAPER.
India ink
See: CHINESE INK.
Indian tragacanth
See: KARAYA GUM.
Indian yellow
A yellow coloring matter prepared from the evaporated urine of cows that have been fed on mango leaves. It is less fugitive than most other yellow lakes. In 1938, however, its production was prohibited on humane grounds, as mango leaves are harmful to the cattle. The term is also applied to a brilliant yellow pigment made from naphthol yellow and used in coating paper. (233)
India Oxford paper
See: BIBLE PAPER.
India paper
From about 1768 to 1875. a soft absorbent paper imported from China for use in making proofs of engravings. Since 1875 it has been made from chemically processed hemp and rags. Today it is generally a thin. opaque sheet made in a basis weight of 20 pounds, bulking approximately 1,000 pages to the inch. (82, 182)
India proof paper
See: CHINA PAPER. (1)
India red
Indian red
See: VENETIAN RED.
India rubber
A substance obtained from the latex of many tropical plants, especially of the genera Hevae and Ficus and characterized by its elasticity, although this property varies widely depending upon its source and preparation. It was at one time used in the production of adhesive bindings. See a1so: CAOUTCHOUC BINDING. (25)
India tint
A term commonly applied to printing papers to indicate a light buff color.
indicator
A ribbon, usually of steel, on a GUILLOTINE cutter, ruled to sixteenths of an inch. It is used to read the distance from the front face of the back gauge to the cutting edge of the knife. (145)
indigo
A blue vat dyestuff, with the formula (C16H10N2O2), formerly derived by fermentation of the leaves of the herbaceous shrubs Isatis tinctoria, Polygonum tinctoria, etc., but now manufactured from anthranilic acid (C16H10N2O2), and used, along with wood ashes, mainly in northern Nigeria, in the removal of hair from goatskin. In the 19th century the natural product was used, in conjunction with sulfuric acid, to make a blue coloring matter for use in the production of leather cover marbles. (130)
industrial binding
A term sometimes applied to early machine produced (edition) bindings of the 19th century.
infusorial earth
See: DIATOMACEOUS SILICA.
ingrain
A descriptive term applied to a mottled, rough, or granite appearance in a type of paper used for pamphlet covers.
inhibitor
1. A substance used to reduce the rate of a chemical reaction. Inhibitors are sometimes used in certain types of adhesives to prolong storage- or working-life. 2. Substances that retard or prevent the accumulation of acid in paper or leather, or the growth of mold or fungi on leathers, paper, cloth, adhesives, etc. (198, 309)
in hubs
A term applied to a blankbook when the HUBS have been glued to the SPRING-BACK (1), the book then being ready for covering. (264)
ink
A general descriptive term for a fluid or viscous material of various colors, hut most often black or blue-black, that is composed essentially of a pigment or dye in a suitable vehicle and used for printing or writing. The earliest inks were essentially suspensions of soot (carbon) in a gum. They were very suitable for use with papyrus, which was porous enough to absorb the vehicle and entrap the pigment between the fibers. Under these conditions the writing would be permanent, indelible, and harmless to the papyrus. This type of ink was in common use until the 11th century when IRON-GALL INK began to come into prominence. The introduction of PARCHMENT as a writing material was probably the reason why an ink other than a carbon-gum solution became necessary. Carbon ink would not adhere to the greasy surface of a material such as parchment, and, in any case, it was too easily removed by sponging. See: PALIMPSEST. Examination of parchment manuscripts from the 9th to 15th centuries indicate that all were written with iron-gall inks in which no trace of carbon could be found. Carbon inks, however, continued to be used for documents, probably until the advent of the "blue-black" ink period. From these somewhat indefinite beginnings, simple iron-gall inks were the predominant inks until about 1860, when the introduction of aniline dyes brought about radical changes in ink manufacture, stemming largely from the fact that in the case of an ANILINE INK, the need for partial oxidation of the ink no longer existed. i Since then the manufacture of ink has become extremely complicated. Most modern inks are manufactured to overcome one or more of the disadvantages inherent in blue-black inks, including their acidity, muddiness, and less than adequate permanence. When considering permanence it is important to distinguish between printing inks and writing inks, because, as prepared today. the former are more permanent than the latter. Writing inks, having a high degree of permanence, can be made to meet special requirements, but such inks are harmful to the fountain pens. In general, the introduction of writing inks colored with an aniline dye has made the typical modern writing ink less permanent than its predecessor of a century earlier. The stability of good quality printing ink, on the other hand, is such that it usually outlasts the paper, and this is as permanent as it need be. See also: CARBONACEOUS INKS; CARBON INK; CHINESE INK; COLORED INKS; PRINTING INKS; SEPIA INKS. (20, 21, 143, 198)
ink absorption
A measure of the extent to which an ink will penetrate into a sheet of paper before it dries.
ink and fold papers
Decorative end- and cover papers produced by laying a sheet of plain rice paper on a lined glass surface to aid in the placement of the design. The glass can be wetted before the paper is laid on, or the paper itself can be thoroughly wetted. The design is laid on with colored inks and a brush, and the paper is then folded twice along its long dimension and then over, forming a square. The square is squeezed tightly to make the color blend, and the paper is then unfolded and allowed to dry. Dots with circles and stripes are commonly used designs for this paper. (183)
ink blocking
The process of blocking titles, or other information, on book covers in black or colored inks. An unheated press and quick-drying printer's ink are used. Drying can be a problem in climates experiencing high relative humidity. (140)
ink holdout
See: HOLDOUT; INK RECEPTIVITY.
ink receptivity
That property of a paper, cloth, etc., that allows it to accept ink in printing and blocking. The capability of the ink to wet the printing surfa